In the USSR, there were several scientific and engineering schools of solar heat supply: Moscow (ENIN, IVTAN, MEI, etc.), Kiev (KievZNIIEPIO, Kiev Civil Engineering Institute, Institute of Technical Thermophysics, etc.), Tashkent (Physics and Technology Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, TashZNIIEP), Ashgabat (Institute of Solar Energy of the Academy of Sciences of the TSSR), Tbilisi ("Spetshelioteplomontazh"). In the 1990s, specialists from Krasnodar, the defense complex (the city of Reutov in the Moscow Region and Kovrov), the Institute of Marine Technologies (Vladivostok), and Rostovteploelektroproekt joined in this work. The original school of solar power plants was created in Ulan-Uda by G.P. Kasatkin.
Solar heating is one of the world's most advanced solar energy conversion technologies for heating, hot water and cooling. In 2016, the total capacity of solar heating systems in the world was 435.9 GW (622.7 million m²). In Russia solar heat supply has not yet received widespread practical use, which is primarily associated with relatively low tariffs for heat and electricity. In the same year in our country, according to expert data, only about 25 thousand square meters of solar power plants were in operation. In fig. 1 shows a photograph of the largest solar plant in Russia in the city of Narimanov, Astrakhan Region, with an area of 4400 m².
Taking into account the global trends in the development of renewable energy, the development of solar heat supply in Russia requires an understanding of domestic experience. It is interesting to note that the questions of the practical use of solar energy in the USSR at the state level were discussed in 1949 at the First All-Union Meeting on Solar Engineering in Moscow. Particular attention was paid to active and passive solar heating systems in buildings.
The active system project was developed and implemented in 1920 by physicist V.A.Mikhelson. In the 1930s, passive solar heating systems were developed by one of the initiators of solar technology - engineer-architect Boris Konstantinovich Bodashko (city of Leningrad). In the same years, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Boris Petrovich Veinberg (Leningrad) conducted research on solar energy resources in the USSR and developed the theoretical foundations for the construction of solar power plants.
In 1930-1932 KG Trofimov (Tashkent city) developed and tested a solar air heater with a heating temperature of up to 225 ° C. One of the leaders in the development of solar collectors and solar hot water systems (DHW) was Ph.D. Boris Valentinovich Petukhov. In his 1949 book, Solar Water Heaters tubular type»He substantiated the feasibility of the development and the main design solutions of flat solar collectors (SC). Based on ten years of experience (1938-1949) in the construction of solar plants for hot water supply systems, he developed a methodology for their design, construction and operation. Thus, already in the first half of the last century, research was carried out in our country on all types of solar heat supply systems, including the potential and methods for calculating solar radiation, liquid and air solar collectors, solar installations for hot water supply systems, active and passive solar heating systems. ...
In most areas, Soviet research and development in the field of solar heat supply occupied a leading position in the world. At the same time, it did not receive wide practical application in the USSR and developed on an initiative basis. So, Ph.D. BV Petukhov designed and built dozens of solar power plants with SC of his own design at the border posts of the USSR.
In the 1980s, following foreign developments initiated by the so-called "world energy crisis", domestic developments in the field of solar energy has intensified significantly. The initiator of new developments was the Energy Institute. G. M. Krzhizhanovsky in Moscow (ENIN), which has accumulated experience in this area since 1949.
Chairperson State Committee in science and technology, Academician V.A.Kirillin visited a number of European scientific centers, who began extensive research and development in the field of renewable energy, and in 1975, in accordance with his instructions, the Institute of High Temperatures of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Moscow (now the Joint Institute for High Temperatures, JIHT RAS) was connected to work in this direction.
In the 1980s, the Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MEI), the Moscow Civil Engineering Institute (MISI), and the All-Union Institute of Light Alloys (VILS, Moscow) began to engage in research in the field of solar heat supply in the 1980s.
The development of experimental projects for high-power solar plants was carried out by the Central Research and Design Institute for Experimental Design (TsNII EPIO, Moscow).
The second most important scientific and engineering center for the development of solar heat supply was Kiev (Ukraine). The head organization in the Soviet Union for the design of solar installations for housing and communal services, the State Grazhdanstroy of the USSR, was the Kiev Zonal Research and Design Institute (KievZNIIEP). Research in this direction was carried out by the Kiev Engineering and Construction Institute, the Institute of Technical Thermophysics of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the Institute for Problems of Materials Science of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR and the Kiev Institute of Electrodynamics.
The third center in the USSR was the city of Tashkent, where the Physico-Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR and the Karshi State Pedagogical Institute were engaged in research. The development of projects for solar power plants was carried out by the Tashkent Zonal Research and Design Institute TashZNIIEP. V Soviet time solar heat supply was handled by the Institute of Solar Energy of the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR in the city of Ashgabat. In Georgia, studies of solar collectors and solar plants were carried out by the association "Spetshelioteplomontazh" (Tbilisi) and the Georgian Research Institute of Energy and Hydraulic Structures.
In the 1990s in the Russian Federation, specialists from the city of Krasnodar, the defense complex (JSC "MIC" NPO Mashinostroeniya ", Kovrov Mechanical Plant), the Institute of Marine Technologies (the city of Vladivostok)," Rostovteploelektroproekt ", as well as Sochi Institute of Balneology. Short review scientific concepts and engineering developments are presented in the work.
In the USSR, the head scientific organization for solar heat supply was the Energy Institute (ENIN *, Moscow) ( approx. author: The activities of ENIN in the field of solar heat supply are fully described by Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Boris Vladimirovich Tarnizhevsky (1930-2008) in the article "Solar Circle" from the collection "ENIN. Memories of the oldest employees "(2000).), which was organized in 1930 and headed until the 1950s by the leader of the Soviet power industry, a personal friend of V.I. Lenin - Gleb Maksimilianovich Krzhizhanovsky (1872-1959).
In the ENIN, on the initiative of G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, a laboratory of solar engineering was created in the 1940s, which was headed first by Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor F.F.Molero, and then for many years (until 1964) by Doctor of Technical Sciences ., Professor Valentin Alekseevich Baum (1904-1985), combining the duties of the head of the laboratory with the work of the deputy director of ENIN.
VA Baum immediately grasped the essence of the matter and gave important advice for graduate students on the continuation or completion of the work. His students recalled the laboratory seminars with gratitude. They were very interesting and at a really good level. VA Baum was a very widely erudite scientist, a man of high culture, great sensitivity and tact. He retained all these qualities to a ripe old age, using the love and respect of his students. High professionalism, scientific approach and decency distinguished this extraordinary person. More than 100 candidate and doctoral dissertations were prepared under his supervision.
Since 1956 B.V. Tarnizhevsky (1930-2008) is a postgraduate student of V.A. Baum and a worthy successor of his ideas. High professionalism, scientific approach and decency distinguished this extraordinary person. Among dozens of his students is the author of this article. In ENIN B.V. Tarnizhevsky worked until the last days of his life for 39 years. In 1962, he went to work at the All-Russian Research Institute of Power Sources, located in Moscow, and then, 13 years later, returned to ENIN.
In 1964, after VA Baum was elected a full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR, he left for Ashgabat, where he headed the Physico-Technical Institute. Yuri Nikolaevich Malevsky (1932-1980) became his successor as the head of the laboratory of solar technology. In the 1970s, he put forward the idea of creating in the Soviet Union an experimental solar power plant with a capacity of 5 MW of a tower type with a thermodynamic conversion cycle (SES-5, located in the Crimea) and led a large-scale team of 15 organizations for its development and construction.
Another idea of Yu. N. Malevsky was to create a complex experimental base for solar heat and cold supply on the southern coast of Crimea, which would at the same time be a fairly large demonstration object and a research center in this area. To solve this problem, B.V. Tarnizhevsky returned in 1976 to ENIN. At this time, the solar laboratory had 70 people. In 1980, after the death of Yu.N. Malevsky, the laboratory of solar technology was divided into a laboratory of solar power plants (headed by V.A. B.V. Tarnizhevsky, who was engaged in the creation of the Crimean base of heat and cold supply. Before joining ENIN, I.V. Baum was in charge of a laboratory at the NPO "Sun" of the Academy of Sciences of the Turkmen SSR (1973-1983) in Ashgabat.
In ENIN, I.V. Baum was in charge of the SES laboratory. In the period from 1983 to 1987, he did a lot to create the first thermodynamic solar power plant in the USSR. In the 1980s, work on the use of renewable energy sources and, first of all, solar energy reached the greatest turnaround at the institute. In 1987, the construction of the Crimean experimental base in the Alushta region was completed. For its operation, a special laboratory was created on site.
In the 1980s, the solar heat supply laboratory took part in the implementation of solar collectors in mass industrial production, the creation of solar and hot water supply installations, including large ones with an area of more than 1000 m² and other large-scale projects.
As B. V. Tarnizhevsky recalled, in the field of solar heat supply in the 1980s, the activities of Sergei Iosifovich Smirnov were irreplaceable, who participated in the creation of the country's first solar-fuel boiler house for one of the hotels in Simferopol, a number of other solar installations, in the development of design techniques for the design of solar heating installations. SI Smirnov was a very noticeable and popular person at the institute.
Powerful intellect combined with kindness and some impulsiveness of character created a unique charm of this person. Yu. L. Myshko, BM Levinsky and other collaborators worked with him in his group. The Selective Coating Development Group, headed by Galina Aleksandrovna Gukhman, developed a technology for the chemical deposition of selective absorbing coatings on absorbers of solar collectors, as well as a technology for applying a heat-resistant selective coating on tubular receivers of concentrated solar radiation.
In the early 1990s, the Solar Heating Laboratory provided scientific and organizational leadership for a new generation solar collector project that was part of the Sustainable Energy Program. By 1993-1994, as a result of research and development work, it was possible to create designs and organize the production of solar collectors that are not inferior to foreign counterparts in terms of thermal engineering and operational characteristics.
Under the leadership of B. V. Tarnizhevsky, the project GOST 28310-89 “Solar collectors. Are common technical conditions". To optimize the designs of flat solar collectors (PSC), Boris Vladimirovich proposed a generalized criterion: the quotient of dividing the cost of the collector by the amount of thermal energy generated by it during the estimated service life.
In recent years of the USSR, under the leadership of Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor B.V. Tarnizhevsky, designs and technologies of eight solar collectors were developed: one with a panel absorber made of stainless steel, two with absorbers made of aluminum alloys, three with absorbers and transparent polymer materials, two designs of air collectors. Technologies for growing sheet-tube aluminum profiles from a melt, a technology for making hardened glass, and applying a selective coating were developed.
The design of the solar collector, developed by ENIN, was mass-produced by the Bratsk Heating Equipment Plant. The absorber is a stamped-welded steel panel with a selective galvanic coating "black chrome". Forged body (trough) - steel, glass - window, glass seal - specialty (guerlain). Annually (according to 1989 data), the plant produced 42.3 thousand m² of collectors.
B.V. Tarnizhevsky developed methods for calculating active and passive heat supply systems for buildings. From 1990 to 2000, 26 different solar collectors were tested at the ENIN stand, including all produced in the USSR and Russia.
In 1975, the Institute of High Temperatures of the Academy of Sciences (IVTAN) under the leadership of Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Ewald Emilievich Shpilrain (1926-2009) joined the work in the field of renewable energy. IVTANA's work on renewable energy is described in detail by Ph.D. O.S. Popel in the article “JIHT RAS. Results and Prospects ”from the jubilee collection of articles of the Institute in 2010. In a short time, together with design organizations, conceptual projects of "solar" houses for the south of the country were developed and substantiated, methods of mathematical modeling of solar heat supply systems were developed, the design of the first Russian scientific testing ground "Sun" on the Caspian Sea coast near the city of Makhachkala began.
At the ICT RAS, first a scientific group was created, and then a laboratory under the leadership of Oleg Sergeevich Popel, in which, together with the staff of the Special Design Bureau of the ICT RAS, along with ensuring the coordination and calculation and theoretical justification of the projects being developed, research began in the field of creating electrochemical optical selective coatings of solar collectors, the development of the so-called "solar ponds", solar heating systems in combination with heat pumps, solar drying plants, work was carried out in other directions.
One of the first practical results of the ICT RAS team was the construction of a "solar house" in the village of Merdzavan, Echmiadzin region of Armenia. This house became the first experimental energy-efficient "solar house" in the USSR, equipped with the necessary experimental diagnostic equipment, on which the chief designer of the project, M. S. Kalashyan from the Institute "Armgiproselkhoz" 100% home security hot water and heating load coverage of more than 50%.
Another important practical result was the introduction at the Bratsk plant of heating equipment developed at the ICT RAS by M.D. this factory.
In the mid-1980s, the "Solntse" test site of the ICT RAS was put into operation in Dagestan. The landfill, located on an area of about 12 hectares, included, along with laboratory buildings, a group of "solar houses" of various types, equipped with solar collectors and heat pumps. One of the largest solar radiation simulators in the world (at that time) was launched at the test site. The radiation source was a powerful 70 kW xenon lamp, equipped with special optical filters, which made it possible to regulate the radiation spectrum from transatmospheric (AM0) to terrestrial (AM1.5). The creation of the simulator made it possible to carry out accelerated resistance tests various materials and paints to solar radiation, as well as testing large-scale solar collectors and photovoltaic modules.
Unfortunately, in the 1990s, due to a sharp reduction in budgetary funding for research and development, most of the projects started by ICT RAS in the Russian Federation had to be frozen. To maintain the direction of work in the field of renewable energy, research and development of the laboratory were reoriented to scientific cooperation with leading foreign centers. Projects were carried out under the INTAS and TASIS programs, the European Framework Program for Energy Saving, heat pumps and solar adsorption refrigeration units, which, on the other hand, made it possible to develop scientific competencies in related fields of science and technology, to master and use in various energy applications modern methods dynamic modeling power plants (Ph.D. S. E. Frid).
On the initiative and under the leadership of O.S. Popel, together with Moscow State University (Ph.D. S.V. Kiselev), an Atlas of Solar Energy Resources in the Russian Federation was developed, and the Geographic Information System Renewable Energy Sources of Russia "(Gisre.ru). Together with the Institute "Rostovteploelektroproekt" (Ph.D. A. A. Chernyavsky), solar installations with solar collectors of the Kovrov Mechanical Plant were developed, built and tested for heating and hot water supply systems at the special astrophysical observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Karachay-Cherkessia. The JIHT RAS has created the only specialized thermohydraulic stand in Russia for full-scale thermal testing of solar collectors and solar plants in accordance with Russian and foreign standards, recommendations have been developed for the use of solar plants in various regions of the Russian Federation. More information about some of the results of research and development of the Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the field of renewable energy can be found in the book by OS Popel and VE Fortov "Renewable Energy in the Modern World".
At the Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI), the issues of solar heat supply were dealt with by Ph.D. V. I. Vissarionov, Doctor of Technical Sciences B. I. Kazandzhan and Ph.D. M.I. Valov.
V. I. Vissarionov (1939-2014) headed the department “Non-traditional renewable energy sources (in 1988-2004). Under his leadership, work was carried out on the calculation of solar energy resources, the development of solar heat supply. MI Valov together with the MPEI staff in 1983-1987 published a number of articles on the study of solar power plants. One of the most informative books is the work of M. I. Valov and B. I. Kazandzhan "Solar heat supply systems", which explored the issues of low-potential solar installations (schematic diagrams, climatic data, characteristics of SC, designs of flat SC), calculation of energy characteristics, economic efficiency use of solar heating systems. Doctor of Technical Sciences BI Kazandzhan developed the design and mastered the production of the flat solar collector "Altan". A feature of this collector is that the absorber is made of an aluminum fin profile, inside of which is pressed copper tube, and cellular polycarbonate is used as a transparent insulation.
An employee of the Moscow Civil Engineering Institute (MISS), Ph.D. S. G. Bulkin developed thermoneutral solar collectors (absorbers without transparent insulation and thermal insulation of the body). A feature of the work was the supply of a coolant to them by 3-5 ° C below the ambient temperature and the possibility of using the latent heat of moisture condensation and frost formation in atmospheric air (solar absorption panels). The heat carrier heated in these panels was warmed up by a heat pump ("air-water"). A test bench with thermoneutral solar collectors and several solar plants in Moldova were built at MISS.
The All-Union Institute of Light Alloys (VILS) has developed and produced a SC with a stamped-welded aluminum absorber, a jellied polyurethane foam thermal insulation of the body. Since 1991, the production of SC was transferred to the Baku Plant for the Processing of Non-Ferrous Alloys. In 1981, VILS developed Guidelines for the design of energy-efficient buildings. In them, for the first time in the USSR, the absorber was integrated into the structure of the building, which improved the economics of using solar energy. The leaders of this direction were Ph.D. N. P. Selivanov and Ph.D. V.N.Smirnov.
Central Research Institute engineering equipment(TsNII EPIO) in Moscow, a project was developed, according to which a solar-fuel boiler house with a capacity of 3.7 MW was built in Ashgabat, a project was developed for a solar-heat pump installation of the Privetlivy Bereg hotel in the city of Gelendzhik with an area of 690 m² SK. Three heat pumps are used refrigeration machines MKT 220-2-0 operating in the mode of heat pumps using the heat of sea water.
The leading organization of the USSR for the design of solar installations was the KievZNIIEP Institute, in which 20 standard and reusable projects were developed: a stand-alone solar hot water supply installation with natural circulation for an individual residential building; unified installation of solar hot water supply for public buildings with a capacity of 5, 7, 15, 25, 30, 70 m³ / day; units, parts and equipment of residential and public buildings of mass construction; installations of solar hot water supply of seasonal action with a productivity of 2.5; 10; thirty; 40; 50 m³ / day; technical solutions and methodological recommendations for the conversion of heating boilers into heliofuel installations.
This institute has developed dozens of experimental projects, including solar hot water supply systems for swimming pools, a solar heat pump installation for hot water supply. According to the project of KievZNIIEP, the largest in the USSR solar plant of the Kastropol boarding house (Beregovoe village, South Coast) in Crimea with an area of 1600 m² was built. At the pilot plant of the KievZNIIEP Institute, solar collectors were produced, the absorbers of which are made of coil fin aluminum pipes own production.
Theorists of solar engineering in Ukraine were D.Sc. Mikhail Davidovich Rabinovich (born in 1948), Ph.D. Alexey Ruvimovich Firth, Ph.D. Victor Fedorovich Gershkovich (1934-2013). They were the main developers of the Solar Hot Water Design Standards and Design Guidelines. MD Rabinovich studied solar radiation, hydraulic characteristics of SC, solar installations with natural circulation, solar heat supply systems, solar fuel boiler houses, high-power solar installations, solar engineering systems. A.R. Firth developed the design of a simulator stand and carried out tests of the SC, investigated the regulation of hydraulic solar power plants, increasing the efficiency of solar power plants. At the Kiev Civil Engineering Institute, Ph.D. Nikolai Vasilievich Kharchenko. He formulated a systematic approach to the development of solar heat supply systems, proposed criteria for assessing their energy efficiency, investigated the optimization of a solar heat supply system, performed a comparison different methods calculation of solar systems. One of his most complete books on small (individual) solar solar installations is notable for its accessibility and informational content. At the Kiev Institute of Electrodynamics, Ph.D. A. N. Stronsky and Ph.D. A. V. Suprun. Candidate of technical sciences also worked on mathematical modeling of solar power plants in Kiev. V.A. Nikiforov.
The leader of the scientific engineering school of solar engineering in Uzbekistan (Tashkent) is Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Rabbanakul Rakhmanovich Avezov (born in 1942). In 1966-1967 he worked at the Ashgabat Physico-Technical Institute of Turkmenistan under the guidance of Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor V. A. Baum. RR Avezov develops the ideas of the teacher at the Physico-Technical Institute of Uzbekistan, which has turned into an international research center.
Scientific directions of research RR Avezov formulated in his doctoral dissertation (1990, ENIN, Moscow), and its results are summarized in the monograph "Solar heating and hot water supply systems". He develops, among other things, methods of exergy analysis of flat solar collectors, creation of active and passive solar heating systems. Doctor of Technical Sciences R.R. Avezov secured great authority and international recognition to the only specialized magazine in the USSR and the CIS countries, Applied Solar Energy ("Heliotekhnika"), which is published on English language... His daughter Nilufar Rabbakumovna Avezova (born 1972) - Doctor of Technical Sciences, General Director of the Scientific and Production Association "Physics-Sun" of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan.
The development of projects for solar power plants in the Tashkent zonal research institute of experimental design of residential and public buildings (TashZNIIEP) was carried out by Ph.D. Yusuf Karimovich Rashidov (born 1954). Institute "TashZNIIEP" developed ten standard projects residential buildings, solar-powered, project of a solar-fuel boiler house, including solar plants with a capacity of 500 and 100 l / day, solar-powered for two and four cabins. From 1984 to 1986, 1200 standard solar plant projects were implemented.
In the Tashkent region (Ilyichevsk settlement), a two-apartment solar house with heating and hot water supply with a solar plant with an area of 56 m² was built. At the Karshi State Pedagogical Institute A.T. Teymurkhanov, A.B. Vardiyashvili and others were engaged in research of flat solar collectors.
The Turkmen scientific school of solar heat supply was created by Ph.D. V. A. Baum, elected in 1964 as an academician of the republic. At the Ashgabat Institute of Physics and Technology, he organized a solar energy department and until 1980 headed the entire institute. In 1979, on the basis of the Department of Solar Energy, the Institute of Solar Energy of Turkmenistan was created, headed by V. A. Baum's student, Doctor of Technical Sciences. Recep Bayramovich Bayramov (1933-2017). In the suburb of Ashgabat (the village of Bikrova), a scientific testing ground of the institute was built, consisting of laboratories, test stands, a design bureau, workshops with a number of employees of 70 people. VA Baum until the end of his life (1985) worked at this institute. RB Bayramov together with Doctor of Technical Sciences Ushakova Alda Danilovna investigated flat solar collectors, solar heating systems and solar desalination plants. It is noteworthy that in 2014 in Ashgabat the Institute of Solar Energy of Turkmenistan - NPO "GUN" was recreated.
In the design and production association "Spetsgelioteplomontazh" (Tbilisi) and the Georgian Research Institute of Energy and Hydraulic Structures under the leadership of Dr. Sc. Nugzar Varlamovich Meladze (born in 1937), designs were developed and the serial production of solar collectors, individual solar hot water installations, solar installations and solar heat pump systems was mastered. The conditions for the payback of the construction of solar power plants in various regions of Georgia were determined; various designs solar collectors.
Solar collectors "Spetsgelioteplomontazh" had an optimal design for their time: a stamped-welded steel absorber with a paint-and-lacquer coating, a body made of aluminum profiles and galvanized steel, window glass, thermal insulation made of foam and foil ruberoid.
According to N. V. Meladze, only in the Caucasus region by 1990 46.9 thousand m2 of solar collectors were installed, including 42.7% in sanatoriums and hotels, 39.2% in industrial solar installations, and agricultural facilities - 13.8%, sports facilities - 3.6%, individual installations - 0.7%.
According to the author, in the Krasnodar Territory in 1988-1992 4620 m² of "Spetsgeliomontazh" solar collectors were installed. The work of the SGTM was carried out in cooperation with scientists from the Georgian Research Institute of Energy and Hydraulic Structures (GruNIIEGS).
Institute "TbilZNIIEP" developed five standard designs of solar installations (SU), as well as a project of a solar heat pump installation. SGTM included a laboratory in which solar collectors and heat pumps were studied. Steel, aluminum, plastic liquid absorbers, air SCs with and without glass, SCs with concentrators, various designs of thermosyphon individual HUs were developed. As of January 1, 1989, "Spetsgeliomontazh" had built 261 HUs with a total area of 46 thousand square meters and 85 individual solar installations for hot water supply systems with an area of 339 square meters.
In fig. 2 shows a solar plant on Rashpilevskaya street in Krasnodar, which has been successfully operating for 15 years with collectors of "Spetsgelioteplomontazh" (320 pcs. With a total area of 260 m²).
The development of solar heat supply in the USSR and in Russia from the side of the authorities was carried out by Dr. Pavel Pavlovich Bezrukikh (born in 1936). In 1986-1992, in the position of chief specialist of the Bureau of the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the fuel and energy complex, he oversaw the serial production of solar collectors at the brotherly heating equipment plant, in Tbilisi at the Spetshelioteplomontazh association at the Baku non-ferrous alloy processing plant. On his initiative and with his direct participation, the USSR's first program for the development of renewable energy for 1987-1990 was developed.
PP Bezrukikh since 1990 took an active part in the development and implementation of the section "Non-traditional energy" of the State Scientific and Technical Program "Environmentally Safe Energy". He marks the main role scientific advisor Ph.D. programs E. E. Shpilrain on attracting leading scientists and specialists of the USSR on renewable energy sources. From 1992 to 2004, P.P. Bezrukikh, working in the Ministry of Fuel and Energy of Russia and heading the department, and then the department of scientific and technical progress, led the organization of production of solar collectors at the Kovrov Mechanical Plant, NPO Mashinostroenie (Reutov, Moscow Region) , a complex of scientific and technical developments in solar heat supply, the implementation of the Concept for the development and use of opportunities for small and non-traditional energy in Russia. Participated in the development of the first Russian standard GOST R 51595-2000 “Solar collectors. General technical conditions "and resolving disagreements of the author of the draft GOST R Doctor of Technical Sciences. B. V. Tarnizhevsky and chief designer of the manufacturer of collectors (Kovrov Mechanical Plant) A. A. Lychagin.
In 2004-2013 at the Institute energy strategy(Moscow), and then as the head of the department of energy conservation and renewable sources of ENIN, P.P. Bezrukikh continues development, including solar heat supply.
In the Krasnodar Territory, work on the design and construction of solar power plants was started by the heat and power engineer V. A. Butuzov (born in 1949), who headed the promising development of heat supply at the Kubanteplokommunenergo production association. From 1980 to 1986, projects were developed and six solar-fuel boiler houses with a total area of 1532 m² were built. Over the years, constructive relations have been established with the manufacturers of the IC: Bratsk plant, "Spetsgelioteplomontazh", KievZNIIEP. Due to the lack of solar radiation data in the Soviet climatological reference books in 1986, reliable results were obtained from the meteorological stations of Krasnodar and Gelendzhik from 1977 to 1986 for the design of solar power plants.
After defending his Ph.D. thesis in 1990, work on the development of solar technology was continued by the Krasnodar Laboratory of Energy Saving and Unconventional Energy Sources of the Academy of Public Utilities (Moscow), organized by V. A. Butuzov. Several designs of flat SCs were developed and improved, as well as a stand for their full-scale tests. As a result of generalization of the experience in the design and construction of solar power plants, “ General requirements to the design of solar power plants and central heating stations in public utilities ”.
Based on the analysis of the results of processing the values of total solar radiation for the conditions of Krasnodar for 14 years, and Gelendzhik for 15 years, in 2004, a new method was proposed for providing monthly values of total solar radiation with the determination of their maximum and minimum values, the probability of their observation. Calculated monthly and annual values of total, direct and scattered solar radiation for 54 cities and administrative centers Krasnodar Territory. It has been established that for an objective comparison of SC of various manufacturers, in addition to comparing their costs and energy characteristics obtained by the standard method on certified test benches, it is necessary to take into account the energy consumption for their manufacture and operation. The optimal cost of the SC structure is determined in the general case by the ratio of the cost of the generated heat energy and the costs of manufacturing, operation for the estimated service life. Together with the Kovrov Mechanical Plant, an SC design was developed and mass-produced, which had optimal for Russian market the ratio of cost and energy costs. Projects have been developed and construction of standard solar hot water supply units with a daily capacity of 200 l to 10 m³ has been carried out. Since 1994, work on solar power plants has been continued at South Russian Energy Company JSC. From 1987 to 2003, the development and construction of 42 solar plants was carried out, and the design of 20 solar plants was completed. The results of the work of V.A. Butuzov were summarized in a doctoral dissertation defended at ENIN (Moscow).
From 2006 to 2010 LLC "Teploproektstroy" designed and built solar boiler plants low power, when installed in which the SC in the summer, the operating personnel is reduced, which reduces the payback period of solar power plants. During these years, self-draining solar power plants were developed and built, when the pumps are stopped, in which water is drained from the SC into the tanks, preventing overheating of the coolant. In 2011, a structure was created, prototypes of flat SCs were made, a test bench was developed for organizing SC production in Ulyanovsk. From 2009 to 2013, Yuzhgeoteplo JSC (Krasnodar) developed a project and built the largest solar plant in the Krasnodar Territory with an area of 600 m² in the city of Ust-Labinsk (Fig. 3). At the same time, studies were carried out to optimize the layout of the SC, taking into account shading, work automation, circuit solutions. A geothermal solar heat supply system with an area of 144 m² was developed and built in the village of Rozovoy, Krasnodar Territory. In 2014, a methodology was developed for assessing the economic payback of solar plants, depending on the intensity of solar radiation, the efficiency of the solar plant, and the unit cost of replaced thermal energy.
Long-term creative cooperation of V.A. Butuzov with Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor of the Kuban State agrarian university Robert Aleksandrovich Amerkhanov (born in 1948) implemented in the development of theoretical foundations for the creation of high-power solar power plants and combined geothermal-solar heat supply systems. Dozens of candidates of technical sciences, including those in the field of solar heat supply, have been trained under his leadership. In numerous monographs by R. A. Amerkhanov, the design issues of solar power plants for agricultural purposes are considered.
The most experienced specialist in the design of solar power plants is the chief project engineer of the Institute "Rostovteploelektroproekt" Ph.D. Adolf Alexandrovich Chernyavsky (born in 1936). He has been involved in this area on his own initiative for more than 30 years. He has developed dozens of projects, many of which have been implemented in Russia and other countries. Unique solar heating and hot water supply systems are described in the section of the Institute of the Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences. A. A. Chernyavsky's projects are distinguished by the elaboration of all sections, including a detailed economic feasibility study. On the basis of solar collectors of the Kovrov Mechanical Plant, "Recommendations for the design of solar heat supply stations" were developed.
Under the leadership of A.A. Unique projects of thermodynamic solar power plants with an installed electrical capacity of 30 MW in Uzbekistan, 5 MW in the Rostov region have been completed; projects of solar installations of boarding houses on the Black Sea coast with an area of 40-50 m2 for solar heating systems and hot water supply of objects of a special astrophysical observatory in Karachay-Cherkessia have been implemented. The Rostovteploelektroproekt Institute is characterized by the scale of development - solar heat supply stations for residential settlements and cities. The main results of the developments of this institute, carried out jointly with the JIHT RAS, are published in the book " Autonomous systems energy supply ".
The development of solar power plants in Sochi state university(Institute of Resort Business and Tourism) was supervised by Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor Pavel Vasilyevich Sadilov, Head of the Department of Environmental Engineering. The initiator of renewable energy, he designed and built several solar plants, including in 1997 in the village of Lazarevskoye (the city of Sochi) with an area of 400 m², a solar plant of the Institute of Balneology, several heat pump plants.
At the Institute of Marine Technologies of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Vladivostok), the head of the laboratory of unconventional energy, Ph.D. Alexander Vasilyevich Volkov, who died tragically in 2014, designed and built dozens of solar plants with a total area of 2000 m², a stand for field comparative tests of solar collectors, new designs of flat SCs, and tested the efficiency of vacuum SCs from Chinese manufacturers.
An outstanding designer and person, Adolf Aleksandrovich Lychagin (1933-2012) was the author of several types of unique anti-aircraft guided missiles, including the Strela-10M. In the 1980s, in the position of chief designer (on an initiative basis) at the military Kovrov Mechanical Plant (KMZ), he developed solar collectors that were distinguished by high reliability, optimal price and energy efficiency ratio. He was able to convince the management of the plant to master the serial production of solar collectors, and to create a factory laboratory for testing the SC. From 1991 to 2011, KMZ produced about 3000 pieces. solar collectors, each of the three modifications of which was distinguished by new performance characteristics. Guided by the "capacity price" of the collector, at which the cost different designs SCs are compared with the same solar radiation, A. A. Lychagin created a collector with an absorber made of a brass tube lattice with steel absorbing ribs. Solar air collectors have been designed and manufactured. The highest engineering qualifications and intuition were combined in Adolf Aleksandrovich with patriotism, the desire to develop environmentally friendly technologies, adherence to principles, and high artistic taste. Having suffered two heart attacks, he was able to come to Madrid specially for a thousand kilometers to study the magnificent canvases in the Prado Museum for two days.
JSC "MIC" NPO Mashinostroeniya "(Reutov, Moscow region) has been producing solar collectors since 1993. The development of designs for collectors and solar water heating plants at the enterprise is carried out by the design department of the Central Design Bureau of Mechanical Engineering. Project manager - Ph.D. Nikolay Vladimirovich Dudarev. In early solar collector designs, housings and die-welded absorbers were made of stainless steel. On the basis of a collector of 1.2 m², the company has developed and manufactured solar thermosyphon water heating units with tanks with a capacity of 80 and 120 liters. In 1994, a technology for obtaining a selective absorbing coating by the method of vacuum electric arc spraying was developed and introduced into production, which was supplemented in 1999 by the magnetron method of vacuum spraying. On the basis of this technology, the production of Sokol-type solar collectors was started. The absorber and the collector body were made of aluminum profiles. Now NPO produces solar collectors "Sokol-Effect" with sheet-tube copper and aluminum absorbers. The only Russian solar collector is certified according to European standards by the SPF Institute from Rapperswill, Switzerland (Institut für Solartechnik Hochschule für Technik Rappelswill).
Research and Production Enterprise "Competitor" (since 2000 - "Raduga-Ts", the city of Zhukovsky, Moscow region) since 1992 produced solar collectors "Raduga". Chief Designer - Vyacheslav Alekseevich Shershnev.
The die-welded absorber was made of stainless steel sheet. The absorber is coated with selective PVD or matt black heat-resistant paint. Annual program of NPP up to 4000 pcs. The energy characteristics of the reservoir were obtained during testing at ENIN. The Raduga-2M thermosyphon solar power plant was also produced, consisting of two SCs of 1 m² each and a tank with a capacity of 200 liters. The tank contained a flat heating panel, which received the coolant from the SC, as well as a backup electric heater with a capacity of 1.6 kW.
LLC "New Polyus" (Moscow) is the second Russian manufacturer that has developed its own designs and currently produces flat liquid, flat air, flat air-liquid, tubular vacuum solar collectors, carries out projects and installation of solar plants. General Director - Alexey Viktorovich Skorobatyuk.
There are four models of YSolar flat liquid collectors. All liquid absorbers from this manufacturer are made of selective Tinox coated copper sheet and copper tubing. The connection of the tubes to the sheet is brazed and welded. LLC "New Polyus" also offers three types of vacuum tube SC of its own manufacture with copper absorbers with U-shaped tubes.
An outstanding specialist, energetic and highly intellectual person Gennady Pavlovich Kasatkin (born 1941), a mining engineer and designer with many years of experience, began to engage in solar engineering in 1999 in the city of Ulan-Ude (Buryatia). In the Center for Energy Efficient Technologies (CEFT) he organized, several designs of liquid and air collectors were developed, about 100 solar plants of various types with a total area of 4200 m² were built. On the basis of his calculations, prototypes were made, which, after tests in full-scale conditions, were replicated on solar power plants of the Republic of Buryatia.
Engineer G.P. Kasatkin developed several new technologies: welding of plastic absorbers, manufacturing of collector bodies.
The only one in Russia, he designed and built several solar air plants with collectors of his own design. Chronologically, his solar collector development began in 1990 with welded sheet-tube steel absorbers. Then came options for copper and plastic manifolds with welded and crimp-coupled absorbers and, finally, modern designs with European copper selective sheets and tubes. G.P. Kasatkin, developing the concept of energy-active buildings, built a solar plant, the collectors of which are integrated into the roof of the building. In recent years, the engineer handed over the management functions at CEFT to his son I. G. Kasatkin, who successfully continues the traditions of CEFT LLC.
In fig. 4 shows the solar plant of the Baikal hotel in the city of Ulan-Ude with an area of 150 m².
conclusions
1. Calculated data of solar radiation for the design of solar power plants in the USSR were based on various methods of processing arrays of measurements of meteorological stations. In the Russian Federation, these methods are supplemented with materials from international satellite computer databases.
2. The leading school for the design of solar power plants in the Soviet Union was the KievZNIIEP Institute, which developed guidelines and dozens of projects. Currently, there are no current Russian norms and recommendations. State-of-the-art solar projects are carried out in Russian institute Rostovteploelektroproekt (Ph.D. AA Chernyavsky) and in the company EnergotekhnologiiServis LLC (Ph.D. VV Butuzov, Krasnodar).
3. Technical and economic research of solar power plants in the USSR was carried out by ENIN (Moscow), KievZNIIEP, TsNIIEPIO (Moscow). At present, these works are being carried out at the Rostovteploelektroproekt Institute and at Energotekhnologii-Service LLC.
4. The leading scientific organization of the USSR for the study of solar collectors was the Energy Institute named after GM Krzhizhanovsky (Moscow). The best collector design for its time was produced by "Spetsgeliotepomontazh" (Tbilisi). Among Russian manufacturers, the Kovrov Mechanical Plant produced solar collectors with an optimal ratio of price and energy efficiency. Modern Russian manufacturers assemble collectors from foreign components.
5. In the USSR, the design, manufacture of solar collectors, installation and adjustment were carried out by the company "Spetsgelioteplomontazh". Until 2010, the company CEFT LLC (Ulan-Ude) operated according to this scheme.
6. Analysis of domestic and foreign experience in solar heat supply has shown undoubted prospects for its development in Russia, as well as the need for state support. Priority measures include: creation of a Russian analogue of a solar radiation computer database; development of new designs of solar collectors with an optimal ratio of price and energy efficiency, new energy-efficient design solutions with adaptation to Russian conditions.
MINISTRY ENERGY AND ELECTRIFICATION the USSR
MAIN SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
ENERGY AND ELECTRIFICATION
INSTRUCTIONS
CALCULATION AND DESIGN
SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS
RD 34.20.115-89
SOYUZTEKHENERGO BEST EXPERIENCE SERVICE
Moscow 1990
DEVELOPED State Order of the Red Banner of Labor Research Power Engineering Institute named after G.M. Krzhizhanovsky
CONTRACTORS M.N. EGAY, O. M. A. S. Korshunov LEONOVICH, V.V. NUSHTAIKIN, V.K. RYBALKO, B.V. TARNIZHEVSKY, V.G. BULYCHEV
APPROVED BY Main Scientific and Technical Directorate of Energy and Electrification 07.12.89
Chief V.I. GORI
The validity period is set
from 01.01.90
until 01/01/92
These Guidelines establish the procedure for performing the calculation and contain recommendations for the design of solar heating systems for residential, public and industrial buildings and structures.
The guidelines are intended for designers and engineers involved in the development of solar heat supply and hot water supply systems.
where f - the share of the total average annual heat load provided by solar energy;
where F - surface area of the SC, m 2.
where H is the average annual total solar radiation on a horizontal surface, kWh / m 2 ; located from the application;
a, b - parameters determined from the equation () and ()
where r - the characteristic of the thermal insulation properties of the building envelope at a fixed value of the DHW load, is the ratio of the daily heating load at an outside air temperature of 0 ° C to the daily DHW load. The more r , the greater is the share of the heating load compared to the share of the DHW load and the less perfect the building structure is in terms of heat losses; r = 0 is taken into account when calculating only DHW systems... The characteristic is determined by the formula
where λ is the specific heat loss of the building, W / (m 3 ° С);
m - the number of hours in a day;
k - rate of ventilation air exchange, 1 / day;
ρ in - air density at 0 ° С, kg / m 3;
f - the replacement rate, roughly taken from 0.2 to 0.4.
The values λ, k, V, t in, s are laid down in the design of the FTS.
Coefficient α values for solar collectors II and III types
|
Coefficient values |
|||||||||
|
α 1 |
α 2 |
α 3 |
α 4 |
α 5 |
α 6 |
α 7 |
α 8 |
α 9 |
|
|
607,0 |
80,0 |
1340,0 |
437,5 |
22,5 |
1900,0 |
1125,0 |
25,0 |
||
|
298,0 |
148,5 |
61,5 |
150,0 |
1112,0 |
337,5 |
700,0 |
1725,0 |
775,0 |
|
Β values for solar collectors II and III types
|
Coefficient values |
|||||||||
|
β 1 |
β 2 |
β 3 |
β 4 |
β 5 |
β 6 |
β 7 |
β 8 |
β 9 |
|
|
1,177 |
0,496 |
0,140 |
0,995 |
3,350 |
5,05 |
1,400 |
|||
|
1,062 |
0,434 |
0,158 |
2,465 |
2,958 |
1,088 |
3,550 |
4,475 |
1,775 |
|
Values of coefficients a and bare from table. ...
The values of the coefficients a and b depending on the type of solar collector
|
Coefficient values |
||
|
0,75 |
||
|
0,80 |
||
where q i is the specific annual heating capacity of DHWS at values f other than 0.5;
Δq - change in the annual specific heating capacity of the DHWS,%.
Change in the value of the specific annual heating capacityΔq from the annual input of solar radiation on a horizontal surface H and coefficient f
... SOLAR DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONSwhere З с - specific reduced costs per unit of generated heat energy SST, rubles / GJ; Зb - specific reduced costs per unit of generated heat energy by the base unit, rubles / GJ. where C c - reduced costs for SST and backup, rubles / year; where k s - capital costs for FTS, rubles; к в - capital costs for the backup, rubles; E n - standard coefficient of comparative efficiency of capital investments (0.1); E s - the share of operating costs from the capital costs of the FTS; E in - the share of operating costs from the capital costs of the backup; C is the cost of a unit of thermal energy generated by the backup, RUB / GJ; N d - the amount of thermal energy generated by the backup during the year, GJ; k e - the effect of reducing environmental pollution, rubles; kp is the social effect of saving the salaries of personnel serving the backup, rubles. Specific reduced costs are determined by the formula where C b - reduced costs for the basic installation, rubles / year; |
Definition of the term |
|
solar collector |
A device for capturing solar radiation and converting it into thermal and other types of energy |
|
Hourly (daily, monthly, etc.) heating capacity |
The amount of heat energy removed from the collector per hour (day, month, etc.) of work |
|
Flat solar collector |
Non-focusing solar collector with a flat configuration absorbing element (tube-in-sheet type, only tubes, etc.) and flat transparent insulation |
|
Heat-absorbing surface area |
The surface area of the absorber illuminated by the sun under normal incidence conditions |
|
Heat loss coefficient through transparent insulation (bottom, side walls of the collector) |
Heat flux into the environment through transparent insulation (bottom, side walls of the collector), per unit area of the heat-absorbing surface, with a difference in the average temperatures of the absorbing element and the outside air of 1 ° C |
|
Specific consumption coolant in a flat solar collector |
Coolant flow rate in the collector per unit area of the heat-absorbing surface |
|
Efficiency ratio |
A value characterizing the efficiency of heat transfer from the surface of the absorbing element to the coolant and equal to the ratio of the actual heating capacity to the heating capacity, provided that all thermal resistances of heat transfer from the surface of the absorbing element to the coolant are equal to zero |
|
Surface blackness |
The ratio of the surface radiation intensity to the black body radiation intensity at the same temperature |
|
Glazing transmission capacity |
The fraction of solar (infrared, visible) radiation transmitted by transparent insulation incident on the surface of transparent insulation |
|
Understudy |
Traditional heat source providing partial or full coverage of the heat load and working in conjunction with a solar heating system |
|
Solar heating system |
Solar system to cover heating and hot water loads |
|
Collector type |
|||
|
Total heat loss factor U L, W / (m 2 ° С) |
|||
|
The absorption capacity of the heat-receiving surface α |
0,95 |
0,90 |
0,95 |
|
The emissivity of the absorbing surface in the collector operating temperature range ε |
0,95 |
0,10 |
0,95 |
|
Glazing throughput τ p |
0,87 |
0,87 |
0,72 |
|
Efficiency ratio F R |
0,91 |
0,93 |
0,95 |
|
Maximum coolant temperature, ° С |
|||
|
Notes I - one-glass non-selective collector; II - one-glass selective collector; III - two-glass non-selective collector. |
|||
|
Manufacturer |
||||
|
Bratsk plant of heating equipment |
Spetshelioteplomontazh GSSR |
KievZNIIEP |
Bukhara plant of solar equipment |
|
|
Length, mm |
1530 |
1000 - 3000 |
1624 |
1100 |
|
Width, mm |
1008 |
|||
|
Height, mm |
70 - 100 |
|||
|
Weight, kg |
50,5 |
30 - 50 |
||
|
Heat-absorbing surface, m |
0,6 - 1,5 |
0,62 |
||
|
Working pressure, MPa |
0,2 - 0,6 |
|||
|
Outer / inner diameter, mm |
Flow area |
Heating surface of one section, m 2 |
Section length, mm |
Weight of one section, kg |
||||
|
inner pipe, cm 2 |
annular channel, cm 2 |
|||||||
|
inner pipe |
||||||||
|
TT 1-25 / 38-10 / 10 |
25/20 |
38/32 |
3,14 |
1,13 |
1500 |
|||
|
TT 2-25 / 38-10 / 10 |
25/20 |
38/32 |
6,28 |
6,26 |
1500 |
|||
|
Azerbaijan SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Baku |
1378 |
|||||||||||
|
Kirovobad |
1426 |
|||||||||||
|
Mingachevir |
1426 |
|||||||||||
|
Armenian SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Yerevan |
1701 |
|||||||||||
|
Leninakan |
1681 |
|||||||||||
|
Sevan |
1732 |
|||||||||||
|
Nakhichevan |
1783 |
|||||||||||
|
Georgian SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Telavi |
1498 |
|||||||||||
|
Tbilisi |
1396 |
|||||||||||
|
Tskhakaya |
1365 |
|||||||||||
|
Kazakh SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Alma-Ata |
1447 |
|||||||||||
|
Guriev |
1569 |
|||||||||||
|
Fort Shevchenko |
1437 |
|||||||||||
|
Dzhezkazgan |
1508 |
|||||||||||
|
Ak-Kum |
1773 |
|||||||||||
|
Aral Sea |
1630 |
|||||||||||
|
Birsa-Kelmes |
1569 |
|||||||||||
|
Kostanay |
1212 |
|||||||||||
|
Semipalatinsk |
1437 |
|||||||||||
|
Dzhanybek |
1304 |
|||||||||||
|
Kolmykovo |
1406 |
|||||||||||
|
Kyrgyz SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Frunze |
1538 |
|||||||||||
|
Tien Shan |
1915 |
|||||||||||
|
RSFSR |
||||||||||||
|
Altai region |
||||||||||||
|
Annunciation |
1284 |
|||||||||||
|
Astrakhan region |
||||||||||||
|
Astrakhan |
1365 |
|||||||||||
|
Volgograd region |
||||||||||||
|
Volgograd |
1314 |
|||||||||||
|
Voronezh region |
||||||||||||
|
Voronezh |
1039 |
|||||||||||
|
Stone steppe |
1111 |
|||||||||||
|
Krasnodar region |
||||||||||||
|
Sochi |
1365 |
|||||||||||
|
Kuibyshev region |
||||||||||||
|
Kuibyshev |
1172 |
|||||||||||
|
Kursk region |
||||||||||||
|
Kursk |
1029 |
|||||||||||
|
Moldavian SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Kishinev |
1304 |
|||||||||||
|
Orenburg region |
||||||||||||
|
Buzuluk |
1162 |
|||||||||||
|
Rostov region |
||||||||||||
|
Tsimlyansk |
1284 |
|||||||||||
|
Giant |
1314 |
|||||||||||
|
Saratov region |
||||||||||||
|
Ershov |
1263 |
|||||||||||
|
Saratov |
1233 |
|||||||||||
|
Stavropol region |
||||||||||||
|
Essentuki |
1294 |
|||||||||||
|
Uzbek SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Samarkand |
1661 |
|||||||||||
|
Tamdybulak |
1752 |
|||||||||||
|
Takhnatash |
1681 |
|||||||||||
|
Tashkent |
1559 |
|||||||||||
|
Termez |
1844 |
|||||||||||
|
Fergana |
1671 |
|||||||||||
|
Churuk |
1610 |
|||||||||||
|
Tajik SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Dushanbe |
1752 |
|||||||||||
|
Turkmen SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Ak-Molla |
1834 |
|||||||||||
|
Ashgabat |
1722 |
|||||||||||
|
Hasan-Kuli |
1783 |
|||||||||||
|
Kara-Bogaz-Gol |
1671 |
|||||||||||
|
Chardzhou |
1885 |
|||||||||||
|
Ukrainian SSR |
||||||||||||
|
Kherson region |
||||||||||||
|
Kherson |
1335 |
|||||||||||
|
Askania Nova |
1335 |
|||||||||||
|
Sumy region |
||||||||||||
|
Konotop |
1080 |
|||||||||||
|
Poltava region |
||||||||||||
|
Poltava |
1100 |
|||||||||||
|
Volyn region |
||||||||||||
|
Kovel |
1070 |
|||||||||||
|
Donetsk region |
||||||||||||
|
Donetsk |
1233 |
|||||||||||
|
Transcarpathian region |
||||||||||||
|
Beregovo |
1202 |
|||||||||||
|
Kiev region |
||||||||||||
|
Kiev |
1141 |
|||||||||||
|
Kirovograd region |
||||||||||||
|
Znamenka |
1161 |
|||||||||||
|
Crimean region |
||||||||||||
|
Evpatoria |
1386 |
|||||||||||
|
Karadag |
1426 |
|||||||||||
|
Odessa region |
||||||||||||
|
30,8 |
39,2 |
49,8 |
61,7 |
70,8 |
75,3 |
73,6 |
66,2 |
55,1 |
43,6 |
33,6 |
28,7 |
|
|
28,8 |
37,2 |
47,8 |
59,7 |
68,8 |
73,3 |
71,6 |
64,2 |
53,1 |
41,6 |
31,6 |
26,7 |
|
|
26,8 |
35,2 |
45,8 |
57,7 |
66,8 |
71,3 |
69,6 |
62,2 |
51,1 |
39,6 |
29,6 |
24,7 |
|
|
24,8 |
33,2 |
43,8 |
55,7 |
64,8 |
69,3 |
67,5 |
60,2 |
49,1 |
37,6 |
27,6 |
22,7 |
|
|
22,8 |
31,2 |
41,8 |
53,7 |
62,8 |
67,3 |
65,6 |
58,2 |
47,1 |
35,6 |
25,6 |
20,7 |
|
|
20,8 |
29,2 |
39,8 |
51,7 |
60,8 |
65,3 |
63,6 |
56,2 |
45,1 |
33,6 |
23,6 |
18,7 |
|
|
18,8 |
27,2 |
37,8 |
49,7 |
58,8 |
63,3 |
61,6 |
54,2 |
43,1 |
31,6 |
21,6 |
16,7 |
|
|
16,8 |
25,2 |
35,8 |
47,7 |
56,8 |
61,3 |
|||||||
|
Boiling point, ° С |
106,0 |
110,0 |
107,5 |
105,0 |
113,0 |
|||||||
|
Viscosity, 10 -3 Pa · s: |
||||||||||||
|
at a temperature of 5 ° С |
5,15 |
6,38 |
||||||||||
|
at a temperature of 20 ° C |
7,65 |
|||||||||||
|
at a temperature of -40 ° С |
7,75 |
35,3 |
28,45 |
|||||||||
|
Density, kg / m 3 |
1077 |
1483 - 1490 |
||||||||||
|
Heat capacity kJ / (m 3 ° С): |
||||||||||||
|
at a temperature of 5 ° С |
3900 |
3524 |
||||||||||
|
at a temperature of 20 ° C |
3340 |
3486 |
||||||||||
|
Corrosiveness |
Strong |
Average |
Weak |
Weak |
Strong |
|||||||
|
Toxicity |
Not |
Average |
Not |
Weak |
Not |
Notes e. Heat transfer fluids based on potassium carbonate have the following compositions (mass fraction):
Recipe 1 Recipe 2
Potassium carbonate, 1.5-water 51.6 42.9
Sodium phosphate, 12-aqueous 4.3 3.57
Sodium silicate, 9-aqueous 2.6 2.16
Sodium tetraborate, 10-aqueous 2.0 1.66
Fluorescoin 0.01 0.01
Water Up to 100 Up to 100
With the rise in energy prices, the use of alternative energy sources is becoming increasingly important. And since heating is the main item of expenses for many, then we are talking about heating in the first place: you have to pay almost all year round and a lot. If you want to save money, the first thing that comes to mind is solar heat: a powerful and completely free source of energy. And it's quite possible to use it. Moreover, the equipment is expensive, but several times cheaper than heat pumps. Let's talk in more detail about how the sun's energy can be used to heat a house.
If we talk about using solar energy for heating, then you need to keep in mind that there are two different devices for converting solar energy:
Both options have their own characteristics. Although you must immediately say which of them you choose, do not rush to give up the heating system that you have. The sun rises, of course, every morning, but not always enough light will fall on your solar cells. The smartest solution is to make a combined system. When there is enough energy from the sun, the second heat source will not work. With this you will protect yourself, and you will live in comfortable conditions, and save money.
If there is no desire or opportunity to install two systems, your solar heating should have at least a double power reserve. Then you can definitely say that you will have warmth in any case.
Benefits of using solar energy for heating:
Flaws:
Now let's take a closer look at each of the types of solar heating elements.
It is solar collectors that are used for solar heating. These installations use the heat of the sun to heat a heating fluid, which can then be used in a hot water heating system. The specificity is that a solar water heater for heating a house produces only a temperature of 45-60 ° C, and shows the highest efficiency at 35 ° C at the outlet. Therefore, such systems are recommended for use in tandem with warm water floors. If you do not want to give up radiators, either increase the number of sections (approximately two times) or warm up the coolant.
Solar collectors (flat and tubular) can be used to provide the house with warm water and for hot water heating.
Now about the types of solar collectors. Structurally, there are two modifications:
In each of the groups there are variations in both materials and design, but they have the same principle of operation: a coolant runs through the tubes, which heats up from the sun. But the designs are completely different.
These solar heating systems have simple design and therefore it is them that can, if desired, be made with your own hands. A solid bottom is fixed to the metal frame. A layer of thermal insulation is laid on top. Insulated to reduce losses and housing walls. Then comes the layer of adsorber - a material that absorbs solar radiation well, converting it into heat. This layer is usually black. Pipes are fixed on the adsorber through which the coolant flows. From above, this whole structure is closed with a transparent lid. The material for the cover can be tempered glass or one of the plastics (most often polycarbonate). In some models, the light-transmitting material of the cover can undergo a special treatment: to reduce the reflectivity, it is made not smooth, but slightly matte.
The pipes in a flat solar collector are usually arranged in a snake, there are two holes - an inlet and an outlet. One-pipe and two-pipe connection can be realized. This is as you like. But a pump is needed for normal heat exchange. A gravity system is also possible, but it will be very ineffective due to the low speed of movement of the coolant. It is this type of solar collector that is used for heating, although it can be used to efficiently heat water for hot water supply.
There is a variant of a gravity collector, but it is used mainly for heating water. This design is also called a plastic solar collector. These are two transparent plastic plates sealed to the body. Inside there is a labyrinth for the movement of water. Sometimes the bottom panel is painted black. There are two openings - inlet and outlet. The water is supplied inside, as it moves through the labyrinth, it is warmed by the sun, and comes out already warm. This scheme works well with a water tank and easily heats the hot water supply. It is a modern replacement for the conventional barrel mounted on summer soul... Moreover, it is a more effective replacement.
How efficient are solar collectors? Among all household solar installations today they show the best results: their efficiency is 72-75%. But not everything is so good:
Nevertheless, heating of a private house from the sun is often done with the help of these solar installations. Such installations are popular in southern countries with active radiation and positive temperatures in winter period... They are not suitable for our winters, but they show good results in the summer season.
This setting can be used to air heating Houses. Structurally, it is very similar to the plastic collector described above, but air circulates and heats up in it. Such devices are hung on the walls. They can work in two ways: if the solar air heater is hermetically sealed, air is taken from the room, heats up and returns to the same room.
There is another option. It combines heating with ventilation. There are holes in the outer casing of the air manifold. Through them, cold air enters the structure. Passing through the labyrinth, it heats up from the sun's rays, and then warmed up enters the room.
Such heating of the house will be more or less effective if the installation occupies the entire southern wall, and there will be no shadow on this wall.
Here, too, the coolant circulates through the pipes, but each of these heat exchange pipes is inserted into a glass flask. They all come together in a manifold, which is essentially a comb.
Scheme of a tubular collector (click to enlarge the picture)
Tubular collectors have two types of tubes: coaxial and feather. Coaxial - pipe in pipe - are nested one into the other and their edges are sealed. A rarefied airless environment is created between the two walls. Therefore, such tubes are also called vacuum tubes. Feather tubes are a regular tube that is sealed on one side. And they are called feathers because to increase heat transfer, an adsorber plate is inserted into them, which has curved edges and is somewhat reminiscent of a feather.
In addition, heat exchangers can be inserted into different housings. different types... The first are Heat-pipe thermal channels. This is a whole system for converting sunlight into thermal energy. Heat-pipe is a small diameter hollow copper tube that is soldered at one end. The second has a massive tip. The tube is filled with a substance with a low boiling point. When heated, the substance begins to boil, part of it turns into a gaseous state and rises up the tube. On the way from the heated tube walls, it heats up more and more. It gets to the top, where it stays for a while. During this time, the gas transfers part of the heat to the massive tip, gradually cools, condenses and settles down, where the process is repeated again.
The second way - U-type - is a traditional tube filled with a coolant. No news or surprises here. Everything is as usual: from one side the coolant enters, passing through the tube, heats up from the sunlight. Despite its simplicity, this type of heat exchanger is more efficient. But it is used less often. This is because solar water heaters of this type form a single whole. If one tube is damaged, the entire section has to be replaced.
Tubular collectors with the Heat-pipe system are more expensive, show less efficiency, but are used more often. And all because a damaged tube can be changed in a couple of minutes. Moreover, if a coaxial flask is used, then the tube can also be repaired. It is simply disassembled (the top cap is removed) and the damaged element (the heat channel or the bulb itself) is replaced with a serviceable one. Then the tube is inserted into place.
For southern regions with mild winters and a lot of sunny days a year, a flat collector is the best option. In this climate, it shows the highest productivity.
For regions with more severe climates, tubular collectors are suitable. Moreover, systems with Heat-pipe are more suitable for harsh winters: they warm even at night and even in cloudy weather, collecting most of the solar radiation spectrum. They are not afraid of low temperatures, but the exact temperature range needs to be clarified: it depends on the substance in the heat channel.
These systems, if properly calculated, can be basic, but more often they simply save heating costs from another, paid source of energy.
Another auxiliary heating can be an air manifold. It can be made in the entire wall, and it is easy to do it yourself. It is perfect for heating a garage or summer cottage. Moreover, problems with insufficient heating may arise not in winter, as you expect, but in autumn. In frost and snow, the sun's energy is many times greater than in cloudy rainy weather.
Hearing the word "solar energy" we primarily think about batteries, which convert light into electricity. And this is done by special photoelectric converters. They are commercially available from a variety of semiconductors. Most often, we use silicon solar cells for domestic use. They have the lowest price and show a fairly decent performance: 20-25%.
Solar panels for a private house are common in some countries
You can directly use solar panels for heating only if you connect a boiler or other electric heating device to this power source. Also, solar panels in conjunction with electric batteries can be integrated into the home's electricity supply system and thus reduce monthly bills for used electricity. In principle, it is quite realistic to fully meet the needs of the family from these attitudes. It just takes a lot of funds and space. On average, 120-150W can be obtained from a square meter of the panel. So count how many squares of the roof or adjoining territory should be occupied by such panels.
The feasibility of installing a solar heating system is questionable for many. The main reason is it's expensive and will never pay for itself. With the fact that it is expensive, we have to agree: the prices for the equipment are rather big. But no one is stopping you from starting small. For example, to assess the effectiveness and practicality of an idea, make a similar installation yourself. Costs are minimal, and you will have a first-hand idea. Then you will decide whether to deal with all this or not. Here's just the thing: all the negative messages from theorists. Not a single one was encountered from practitioners. There is an active search for ways to improve, rework, but no one said that the idea was useless. It says something.
Now that installing a solar heating system will never pay off. As long as the payback period
bridges in our country are large. It is comparable to the lifespan of solar collectors or batteries. But if we look at the dynamics of the growth of prices for all energy resources, we can assume that soon it will be reduced to quite acceptable terms.
Now, actually about how to make a system. First of all, you need to determine the need of your house and seven for heat and hot water. The general method for calculating a solar heating system is as follows:
In addition to determining the number of components of the solar system, it will be necessary to determine the volume of the tank in which hot water for hot water supply will accumulate. This can be done easily by knowing your family's actual expense. If you have a DHW meter installed and you have data for several years, you can display the average daily consumption rate (average monthly consumption divided by the number of days). This is approximately the volume of the tank you need. But the tank needs to be taken with a margin of 20% or so. Just in case.
If there is no hot water supply or a meter, you can use the consumption rates. One person consumes on average 100-150 liters of water per day. Knowing how many people permanently live in the house, you will calculate the required volume of the tank: the rate is multiplied by the number of residents.
It must be said right away that the rational (in terms of payback) for central Russia is a solar heating system, which covers about 30% of the heat demand and fully supplies hot water. This is an average result: in some months heating will be provided by 70-80% by the solar system, and in some months (December-January) by only 10%. Again, a lot depends on the type solar panels and from the region of residence.
And it’s not just “north” or “south”. It's about the number of sunny days. For example, in very cold Chukotka, solar heating will be very effective: the sun is almost always shining there. In the much milder climate of England, with eternal fogs, its effectiveness is extremely low.
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Despite many critics who talk about the inefficiency of solar energy and too long a payback period, more and more people are switching to alternative sources at least partially. In addition to savings, many are attracted by independence from the state and its pricing policy. In order not to regret the money invested in vain, you can first conduct an experiment: make one of the solar installations with your own hands and decide for yourself how much it attracts you (or not).
Solar heat supply is a method of heating a residential building, which is becoming more and more popular every day in many, mainly developed, countries of the world. The greatest successes in the field of solar thermal energy today can boast in the countries of Western and Central Europe. In the European Union, over the past decade, there has been an annual growth of the renewable energy industry by 10-12%. This level of development is a very significant indicator.
solar collector
One of the most obvious applications for solar energy is its use for heating water and air (as heat carriers). In climatic regions where cold weather prevails, for a comfortable stay of people, the calculation and organization of heating systems for each residential building is mandatory. They must have hot water supply for various needs, besides, the houses must be heated. Certainly, the best option here will be the application of the scheme where work automated systems heat supply.
Large volumes of daily hot water supply during the production process are required by industrial enterprises. As an example, we can cite Australia, where almost 20 percent of all consumed energy is spent on heating a liquid heat carrier to a temperature not exceeding 100 o C. For this reason, in some of the developed countries of the West, and to a greater extent in Israel, North America, Japan and, of course, in Australia, the production of solar heating systems is expanding very quickly.
In the near future, the development of energy will undoubtedly be directed towards the use of solar radiation. The density of solar radiation on the earth's surface is on average 250 watts per square meter. And this despite the fact that to meet the economic needs of a person in the least industrialized regions, two watts per square meter are enough.
The advantageous difference between solar energy and other energy industries that use fossil fuel combustion is the environmental friendliness of the energy received. The operation of solar equipment does not entail the release of harmful emissions into the atmosphere.
Selection of equipment application scheme, passive and active systems
There are two schemes for using solar radiation as a heating system for a home. These are active and passive systems. Passive solar heating systems are those in which the element that directly absorbs solar radiation and generates heat from it is the structure of the house itself or its individual parts. These elements can serve as a fence, roof, individual parts of the building, built on the basis of a certain scheme. Passive systems do not use mechanical moving parts.
Active systems work on the basis of the opposite scheme of heating a house, they actively use mechanical devices (pumps, motors, when they are used, they also calculate the required power).
Passive systems are the simplest in design and less costly in financial terms when installing the circuit. Such heating schemes do not need to be installed additional devices for the absorption and subsequent distribution of solar radiation in the heating system of the house. The operation of such systems is based on the principle of direct heating of the living space directly through the light-transmitting walls located on the south side. An additional heating function is performed by the outer surfaces of the house fencing elements, which are equipped with a layer of transparent screens.
To start the process of converting solar radiation into thermal energy, a system of structures based on the use of solar receivers with a transparent surface, where the main function is played by the "greenhouse effect", is used, the glass's ability to retain thermal radiation is used, thereby increasing the temperature inside the room.
It should be noted that the use of only one of the types of systems may not be entirely justified. Often a careful calculation shows that it is possible to achieve significant reductions in heat loss and a building's energy requirements through integrated systems. General work both active and passive systems by combining positive qualities will give the maximum effect.
Typically, efficiency calculations show that the passive use of solar radiation will cover your home's heating needs by about 14-16 percent. Such a system will be an important part of the heat production process.
However, in spite of certain positive qualities of passive systems, the main possibilities for fully meeting the building's heat needs still require the use of active heating equipment. Systems whose function is directly absorption, accumulation and distribution of solar radiation.
Planning and calculation
Calculate the possibility of installing active heating systems using solar energy (crystalline solar cells, solar collectors), preferably at the stage of building design. But nevertheless, this moment is not obligatory, the installation of such a system is also possible on an already existing task, regardless of the year of its construction (the basis for success is the correct calculation of the entire scheme).
Installation of equipment is carried out on the south side of the house. This arrangement creates conditions for maximum absorption of incoming solar radiation in winter. Photocells that convert the energy of the sun and installed on a fixed structure are most effective when they are installed relative to the earth's surface at an angle equal to the geographical location of the heated building. The angle of inclination of the roof, the degree of turn of the house to the south - these are significant points that must be taken into account when calculating the entire heating scheme.
Solar cells and solar collectors should be installed as close as possible to the place of energy consumption. Remember that the closer you build the bathroom and kitchen, the less heat loss will be (in this option, you can do with one solar collector, which will heat both rooms). The main criterion for assessing the selection of the equipment you need is its efficiency.
Active solar heating systems are divided into the following groups according to the following criteria:
General economic data will serve as the main factor in choosing one of the types of equipment. A competent thermal calculation of the entire system will help you to determine correctly. The calculation must be performed, taking into account the indicators of each specific room, where the organization of solar heating and (or) hot water supply is planned. It is worth considering the location of the building, climatic natural conditions, the size of the cost of the displaced energy resource. Correct calculation and good choice heat supply organization schemes are the key to the economic feasibility of using solar energy equipment.
Solar heating system
The most common heating scheme used is the installation of solar collectors, which provide for the function of accumulating absorbed energy in a special container - a battery.
To date, the most widespread are two-circuit heating schemes for residential premises, in which a forced circulation system of the coolant in the collector is installed. The principle of its operation is as follows. Hot water is supplied from the top point of the storage tank, the process occurs automatically according to the laws of physics. Cold running water is pumped into the lower part of the tank by pressure, this water displaces the heated water that collects in the upper part of the tank, which then enters the hot water supply system of the house to meet its household needs and heating needs.
For a single-family home, a storage tank with a capacity of 400 to 800 liters is usually installed. For heating the heat carrier of such volumes, depending on natural conditions it is required to correctly calculate the surface area of the solar collector. It is also necessary to justify the use of the equipment economically.
The standard set of equipment for installing a solar heating system is as follows:
System based on heat absorbing panels. Such panels are usually used during the new construction phase. For their installation, it is necessary to build a special structure called a hot roof. This means that the panels must be installed directly into the roof structure, while using the roofing elements as building blocks of the equipment body. Such an installation will reduce your costs for creating a heating system, however, it will require high-quality waterproofing of the joints of the devices and the roof. This method of installing equipment will require you to carefully design and plan all stages of work. It is necessary to solve many problems on piping, placing the storage tank, installing the pump, adjusting the slopes. Quite a lot of installation problems will have to be solved if the building is not turned to the south in the most successful way.
In general, the project of solar heating systems will be different from others in one way or another. Only basic principles systems. Therefore, it is impossible to give an exact list of the necessary parts for the complete installation of the entire system, since during the installation process it may be necessary to use additional elements and materials.
In systems operating on the basis of a liquid heat carrier, ordinary water is used as an accumulating substance. Energy absorption takes place in flat solar collectors. Energy is accumulated in the storage tank and consumed as the need arises.
To transfer energy from the storage device to the building, a water-to-water or water-to-air heat exchanger is used. The hot water system is equipped with an additional tank called a preheating tank. Water is heated in it by solar radiation and then enters a conventional water heater. 
Such a system uses air as a heat carrier. Heating of the coolant is carried out in a flat solar collector, and then the heated air enters the heated room or into a special storage device, where the absorbed energy is accumulated in a special nozzle, which is heated by the incoming hot air. Thanks to this feature, the system continues to supply the home with warmth even at night when solar radiation is not available.
The basis of the operation of systems with natural circulation is the independent movement of the coolant. Under the influence of the rising temperature, it loses its density and therefore tends to the top of the device. The resulting pressure difference makes the equipment function.
Solar heating systems
4.1. Classification and basic elements of solar systems
Solar heating systems are systems that use solar radiation as a source of thermal energy. Their characteristic difference from other low-temperature heating systems is the use of a special element - a solar receiver, designed to capture solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy.
According to the method of using solar radiation, solar low-temperature heating systems are divided into passive and active.
Passive systems are solar heating systems in which the building itself or its individual enclosures (collector building, collector wall, collector roof, etc.) serve as an element that receives solar radiation and converts it into heat. )).
Rice. 4.1.1 Passive low-temperature solar heating system “wall-collector”: 1 - sun rays; 2 - beam-transparent screen; 3 - air damper; 4 - heated air; 5 - cooled air from the room; 6 - own long-wave thermal radiation of the wall array; 7 - black ray-perceiving wall surface; 8 - blinds.
Low-temperature solar heating systems are called active systems, in which the solar collector is an independent, separate device not related to the building. Active solar systems can be subdivided:
by purpose (hot water supply systems, heating systems, combined systems for heat and cold supply purposes);
by the type of coolant used (liquid - water, antifreeze and air);
by the duration of work (year-round, seasonal);
according to the technical solution of the schemes (one-, two-, multi-circuit).
Air is a widespread non-freezing coolant in the entire range of operating parameters. When using it as a heat carrier, it is possible to combine heating systems with a ventilation system. However, air is a low-heat heat carrier, which leads to an increase in metal consumption for the device of air heating systems in comparison with water systems.
Water is a heat-retaining and widely available heat carrier. However, at temperatures below 0 ° C, it is necessary to add anti-freezing liquids to it. In addition, it must be borne in mind that water saturated with oxygen causes corrosion of pipelines and apparatus. But the consumption of metal in water solar systems is much lower, which greatly contributes to their wider application.
Seasonal solar hot water systems are usually single-circuit and operate in the summer and transitional months, during periods with a positive outside temperature. They can have an additional source of heat or do without it, depending on the purpose of the serviced facility and operating conditions.
Solar heating systems for buildings are usually double-circuit or, most often, multi-circuit, and different heat carriers can be used for different circuits (for example, in a solar circuit - aqueous solutions non-freezing liquids, in the intermediate circuits - water, and in the consumer circuit - air).
Combined year-round solar systems for heat and cold supply of buildings are multi-circuit and include an additional heat source in the form of a traditional fossil-fueled heat generator or heat transformer.
Schematic diagram solar heat supply system is shown in Figure 4.1.2. It includes three circulation circuits:
the first circuit, consisting of solar collectors 1, a circulation pump 8 and a liquid heat exchanger 3;
a second circuit consisting of a storage tank 2, a circulation pump 8 and a heat exchanger 3;
the third circuit, consisting of a storage tank 2, a circulation pump 8, a water-air heat exchanger (air heater) 5.
Rice. 4.1.2. Schematic diagram of the solar heat supply system: 1 - solar collector; 2 - storage tank; 3 - heat exchanger; 4 - building; 5 - air heater; 6 - backup for the heating system; 7 - doubler of the hot water supply system; 8 - circulation pump; 9 - fan.
The solar heating system functions as follows. The heat carrier (antifreeze) of the heat-receiving circuit, being heated in the solar collectors 1, enters the heat exchanger 3, where the heat of the antifreeze is transferred to the water circulating in the annular space of the heat exchanger 3 under the action of the pump 8 of the secondary circuit. The heated water enters the storage tank 2. From the storage tank, water is taken by the hot water supply pump 8, is brought, if necessary, to the required temperature in the backup 7 and enters the building hot water supply system. Make-up of the storage tank is carried out from the water supply system.
For heating, water from the storage tank 2 is supplied by the pump of the third circuit 8 to the heater 5, through which air is passed with the help of the fan 9 and, when heated, enters the building 4. In the absence of solar radiation or lack of heat energy generated by solar collectors, into operation the backup is switched on 6.
The choice and arrangement of the elements of the solar heat supply system in each specific case are determined by climatic factors, the purpose of the object, the mode of heat consumption, and economic indicators.
4.2. Concentrating solar collectors
Concentrating solar collectors are spherical or parabolic mirrors (Fig. 4.2.1) made of polished metal, in the focus of which a heat-receiving element (solar boiler) is placed, through which the coolant circulates. Water or non-freezing liquids are used as a heat carrier. When used as a heat carrier water at night and in cold period the system must be emptied to prevent it from freezing.
To ensure high efficiency of the process of capturing and converting solar radiation, the concentrating solar receiver must be constantly pointed strictly at the Sun. For this purpose, the solar receiver is equipped with a tracking system that includes a sun direction sensor, an electronic signal conversion unit, an electric motor with a gearbox for rotating the solar receiver structure in two planes.
Rice. 4.2.1. Concentrating solar collectors: a - parabolic concentrator; b - parabolic-cylindrical concentrator; 1 - sun rays; 2 - heat-absorbing element (solar collector); 3 - mirror; 4 - drive mechanism of the tracking system; 5 - pipelines supplying and removing the coolant.
The advantage of systems with concentrating solar collectors is the ability to generate heat with a relatively high temperature (up to 100 ° C) and even steam. The disadvantages include the high cost of the structure; the need for constant cleaning of reflective surfaces from dust; work only during daylight hours, and therefore the need for large batteries; large energy consumption for the drive of the solar tracking system, commensurate with the generated energy. These disadvantages restrain the widespread use of active low-temperature solar heating systems with concentrating solar collectors. Recently, flat solar collectors are most often used for solar low-temperature heating systems.
4.3. Flat solar collectors
A flat solar collector is a device with an absorbing flat panel and flat transparent insulation for absorbing solar energy and converting it into thermal energy.
Flat solar collectors (Fig.4.3.1) consist of a glass or plastic cover (single, double, triple), a heat-absorbing panel painted black on the side facing the sun, insulation on the back and a housing (metal, plastic, glass, wood).
Rice. 4.3.1. Flat solar collector: 1 - sun rays; 2 - glazing; 3 - case; 4 - heat-absorbing surface; 5 - thermal insulation; 6 - sealant; 7 - intrinsic long-wave radiation of the heat-receiving plate.
Any metal or plastic sheet with coolant channels can be used as a heat-absorbing panel. Heat-absorbing panels are made of aluminum or steel of two types: sheet-pipe and stamped panels (pipe in sheet). Plastic panels are not widely used due to their fragility and rapid aging under the influence of sunlight, as well as because of their low thermal conductivity.
Under the influence of solar radiation, heat-sensing panels are heated to temperatures of 70-80 ° C, higher than the ambient temperature, which leads to an increase in the convective heat transfer of the panel to the environment and its own radiation to the sky. To achieve higher temperatures of the coolant, the surface of the plate is covered with spectrally selective layers that actively absorb short-wavelength radiation from the sun and reduce its own thermal radiation in the long-wavelength part of the spectrum. Such designs based on "black nickel", "black chrome", copper oxide on aluminum, copper oxide on copper and others are expensive (their cost is often commensurate with the cost of the heat-absorbing panel itself). Another way to improve the performance of flat plate collectors is to create a vacuum between the heat absorbing panel and the transparent insulation to reduce heat loss (fourth generation solar collectors).
The experience of operating solar installations based on solar collectors has revealed a number of significant disadvantages of such systems. First of all, this is the high cost of collectors. Increasing the efficiency of their work due to selective coatings, increasing the transparency of glazing, evacuation, as well as the arrangement of the cooling system turn out to be economically unprofitable. A significant disadvantage is the need for frequent cleaning of glasses from dust, which practically excludes the use of the collector in industrial areas. During long-term operation of solar collectors, especially in winter conditions, their frequent failure is observed due to uneven expansion of illuminated and darkened areas of glass due to violation of the integrity of the glazing. There is also a high percentage of collector failure during transportation and installation. A significant disadvantage of the systems with collectors is also the unevenness of the load during the year and day. The experience of operating collectors in Europe and the European part of Russia with a high proportion of diffuse radiation (up to 50%) has shown the impossibility of creating a year-round autonomous hot water supply and heating system. All solar systems with solar collectors in mid-latitudes require the device of large-volume storage tanks and the inclusion of an additional source of energy in the system, which reduces the economic effect of their use. In this regard, it is most advisable to use them in areas with a high average intensity of solar radiation (not less than 300 W / m 2).
Potential opportunities for using solar energy in Ukraine
On the territory of Ukraine, the energy of solar radiation for one average annual daylight hours averages 4 kW ∙ hour per 1 m2 (on summer days - up to 6 - 6.5 kW ∙ hour), i.e. about 1.5 thousand kW ∙ hour per year for each square meter. This is about the same as in central Europe, where the use of solar energy is the most widespread.
In addition to favorable climatic conditions, Ukraine has highly qualified scientific personnel in the field of solar energy use. After returning prof. Boyko B.T. from UNESCO, where he headed the UNESCO international program on the use of solar energy (1973-1979), he began intensive scientific and organizational activities at the Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute (now the National Technical University - KhPI) on the development of a new scientific and educational direction of materials science for solar energy. Already in 1983, in accordance with the order of the USSR Ministry of Higher Education N 885 of 07/13/83, at the Kharkov Polytechnic Institute, for the first time in the practice of the higher school of the USSR, the training of physicists with profiling in the field of materials science for solar energy within the framework of the specialty “Physics of Metals” was started. This laid the foundations for the creation in 1988 of the graduating department "Physical materials science for electronics and solar energy" (FMEG). The Department of FMEG, in collaboration with the Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Engineering (Kharkov), within the framework of the space program of Ukraine, took part in the creation of silicon solar cells with efficiency. thirteen - 14% for Ukrainian spacecraft.
Since 1994, the Department of FMEG, with the support of the University of Stuttgart and the European Community, as well as the Technical University of Zurich and the Swiss National Science Society, has been actively involved in scientific research on the development of film PVC.
