Etc. The shape of bricks in ancient Rome varied, including rectangular, triangular and round bricks in plan, rectangular slabs of bricks were radially cut into 6-8 parts, which made it possible to lay more durable and curly masonry from the resulting triangular pieces.
Standard fired brick has been used in Russia since the end of the 15th century. A striking example was the construction of the walls and temples of the Moscow Kremlin during the time of John III, which was in charge of Italian craftsmen. " ... and a brick oven was set up behind the Andronikov Monastery, in Kalitnikovo, what to burn a brick in and how to do it, our Russian brick is already more oblong and harder, when it needs to be broken, it is soaked with water. Lime was commanded to interfere with thickly with hoes, as it dries up in the morning, it is impossible to split it with a knife».
The usual rectangular brick (it was more convenient to hold it in hand) appeared in England in the 16th century.
Incomplete (part):
According to GOST 530-2012, the faces of the brick have the following names:
The brick is divided into two large groups: red and white. Red bricks are mainly made of clay, while white bricks are made of sand and lime. The mixture of the latter was called "silicate", and hence the silicate brick.
It became possible to "cook" silicate bricks only after the development of new principles for the production of artificial building materials. This production is based on the so-called autoclave synthesis: 9 parts of quartz sand, 1 part of air lime and additives after semi-dry pressing (thus creating a brick shape) are autoclaved (exposure to water vapor at a temperature of 170-200 ° C and a pressure of 8 - 12 atm.). If weather-resistant, alkali-resistant pigments are added to this mixture, a colored silicate brick is obtained.
Silicate brick is usually used for the construction of load-bearing and self-supporting walls and partitions, single-storey and multi-storey buildings and structures, internal partitions, filling voids in monolithic concrete structures, the outer part of chimneys.
Ceramic bricks are usually used for the construction of load-bearing and self-supporting walls and partitions, single-storey and multi-storey buildings and structures, internal partitions, filling voids in monolithic concrete structures, laying foundations, the inside of chimneys, industrial and domestic stoves.
Ceramic bricks are subdivided into ordinary (building) and front bricks. The latter is used in almost all areas of construction.
The facing brick is made using a special technology, which gives it a lot of advantages. The facing brick should be not only beautiful, but also reliable. Facing bricks are usually used in the construction of new buildings, but can also be successfully used in various restoration work. It is used for cladding plinths of buildings, walls, fences, for interior design.
Until the 19th century, brick-making techniques remained primitive and time consuming. The bricks were molded by hand, dried exclusively in summer, and fired in floor ovens-temporary huts, lined with dried raw bricks. In the middle of the 19th century, an annular kiln was built, as well as a belt press, which caused a revolution in production technology. At the end of the 19th century, dryers began to be built. At the same time, clay-processing machines appeared: runners, rollers, and clay mills.
Nowadays, more than 80% of all bricks are produced by year-round enterprises, among which there are large mechanized factories with a capacity of over 200 million pieces. in year.
It is necessary to create conditions to ensure the basic parameters of production:
In brick production, the result is achieved only after lengthy experiments with drying and firing modes. This work should be carried out with constant basic production parameters.
Good (facing) ceramic bricks are made from clay mined with a fine fraction with a constant composition of minerals. Deposits with a homogeneous composition of minerals and a multi-meter layer of clay suitable for extraction with a single bucket excavator are very rare and almost all of them are developed.
Most of the deposits contain multilayer clay, therefore, the best mechanisms capable of making clay of medium composition during mining are multi-bucket and bucket wheel excavators. When working, they cut the clay along the face height, grind it, and when mixed, an average composition is obtained. Other types of excavators do not mix clay, but extract it in blocks.
A constant or medium composition of clay is necessary for the selection of constant modes of drying and firing. Each composition needs its own drying and firing mode. Once selected, the modes allow you to get high-quality bricks from the dryer and oven for years.
The qualitative and quantitative composition of the deposit is determined as a result of the exploration of the deposit. Only exploration finds out the mineral composition: what silty loams, fusible clays, refractory clays, etc. are contained in the deposit.
The best clays for making bricks are those that do not require additives. For the production of bricks, clay is usually used that is not suitable for other ceramic products.
Dryers are fully loaded with bricks, and in them temperature and humidity gradually change throughout the entire volume of the dryer, in accordance with a predetermined drying curve for products.
Dryers are loaded gradually and evenly. The trolleys with bricks move through the dryer and pass successively zones with different temperatures and humidity. Tunnel dryers are best used for drying bricks from medium-sized raw materials. They are used in the production of the same type of building ceramics. Very well "keep" the drying mode with a constant and uniform loading of raw bricks.
Clay is a mixture of minerals, consisting by weight of more than 50% of particles up to 0.01 mm. Fine clays include particles less than 0.2 microns, average 0.2-0.5 microns and coarse-grained 0.5-2 microns. In the bulk of the raw brick, there are many capillaries of complex configuration and different sizes, formed by clay particles during molding.
Clays give a mass with water, which, after drying, retains its shape, and after firing it acquires the properties of a stone. Plasticity is due to the penetration of water, a good natural solvent, between the individual particles of the clay minerals. The properties of clay with water are important when molding and drying bricks, and the chemical composition determines the properties of products during firing and after firing.
The sensitivity of clay to drying depends on the percentage of "clay" and "sandy" particles. The more “clay” particles in the clay, the more difficult it is to remove water from the raw brick without cracking during drying and the greater the strength of the brick after firing. The suitability of the clay for brick making is determined by laboratory tests.
If a lot of water vapor is formed in the raw material at the beginning of the dryer, then their pressure can exceed the ultimate strength of the raw material and a crack will appear. Therefore, the temperature in the first zone of the dryer must be such that the water vapor pressure does not destroy the raw material. In the third zone of the dryer, the raw material strength is sufficient to increase the temperature and increase the drying speed.
The regime characteristics of drying products in factories depend on the properties of raw materials and the configuration of products. Drying regimes existing at factories cannot be regarded as unchanged and optimal. The practice of many factories shows that the drying time can be significantly reduced using methods of accelerating external and internal diffusion of moisture in products.
In addition, one cannot ignore the properties of clay raw materials of a particular deposit. This is precisely the task of the plant technologists. It is necessary to select the productivity of the brick molding line and the operating modes of the brick dryer, which ensure the high quality of the raw material at the maximum achievable productivity of the brick factory.
Clay is a mixture of low-melting and high-melting minerals. During firing, low-melting minerals bind and partially dissolve high-melting minerals. The structure and strength of a brick after firing is determined by the percentage of fusible and refractory minerals, the temperature and duration of firing.
In the process of firing ceramic bricks, low-melting minerals form glassy and refractory crystalline phases. With an increase in temperature, more and more refractory minerals pass into the melt, and the content of the glass phase increases. With an increase in the content of the glass phase, frost resistance increases and the strength of ceramic bricks decreases.
With an increase in the duration of firing, the diffusion process between the glassy and crystalline phases increases. In places of diffusion, large mechanical stresses arise, since the coefficient of thermal expansion of refractory minerals is greater than the coefficient of thermal expansion of low-melting minerals, which leads to a sharp decrease in strength.
After firing at a temperature of 950-1050 ° C, the proportion of the vitreous phase in the ceramic brick should be no more than 8-10%. In the firing process, such firing temperature conditions and firing duration are selected so that all these complex physicochemical processes provide the maximum strength of the ceramic brick.
The main component of sand-lime brick (85-90% by weight) is sand, therefore sand-lime brick factories are usually placed near sand deposits, and sand pits are part of the enterprises. The composition and properties of sand largely determine the nature and features of the silicate brick technology.
Sand is a loose accumulation of grains of various mineral composition with a size of 0.1 - 5 mm. By origin, sands are divided into natural and artificial. The latter, in turn, are divided into waste when crushing rocks (tailings from ore dressing, seeding crushed stone quarries, etc.), crushed waste from fuel combustion (sand from fuel slag), crushed waste from metallurgy (sand from blast-furnace and water-bed slags).
The shape and nature of the surface of the sand grains are of great importance for the formability of the silicate mixture and the strength of the raw material, and also affect the rate of reaction with lime, which begins during autoclaving on the surface of the sand grains.
When sands are coarsely mixed in a quarry, it is checked in what proportion the trolleys or dump trucks are loaded with sands of various sizes in each face. If there are several receiving bins for different sand fractions, it is necessary to check the specified proportion of sands in the charge by the number of feeders of the same capacity, simultaneously unloading sands of different sizes.
The sand coming from the face before it is used in production must be sifted out of foreign impurities - stones, lumps of clay, branches, metal objects, etc. drum screens.
Lime should only be stored in covered warehouses that protect it from moisture. It is not recommended to store lime in air for a long time, as it always contains a small amount of moisture, which extinguishes lime. The content of carbon dioxide in the air leads to the carbonization of lime, that is, the combination with carbon dioxide and thereby a partial decrease in its activity.
The lime-sand mixture is prepared in two ways: drum and silage.
The silage method of preparation of the mass has significant economic advantages over the drum method, since during the ensiling of the mass, steam is not consumed for slaking the lime. In addition, the technology of the silage method of production is much simpler than the technology of the drum method. The prepared lime and sand are continuously fed by feeders in a given ratio into a continuous single-shaft mixer and moistened with water. The mixed and moistened mass enters the silos, where it is kept for 4 to 10 hours, during which the lime is slaked.
The silo is a cylindrical vessel made of sheet steel or reinforced concrete; the height of the silo is 8 - 10 m, the diameter is 3.5 - 4 m. In the lower part, the silo has a conical shape. The silo is unloaded by a disc feeder onto a conveyor belt. This produces a lot of dust.
When matured in silos, the mass often forms vaults; the reason for this is the relatively high degree of moisture content of the mass, as well as its compaction and partial hardening during aging. Most often, vaults are formed in the lower layers of the mass, at the base of the silo. For better unloading of the silo, it is necessary to keep the moisture content of the mass as low as possible. Silos are discharged satisfactorily only when the moisture content of the mass is 2 - 3%. The silage mass during unloading is more dusty than the mass obtained by the drum method; hence the more difficult working conditions for the maintenance personnel.
The work of the silo proceeds as follows: inside the silo is divided by partitions into three sections. The mass is poured into one of the sections within 2.5 hours, the same amount is required to unload the section. By the time the silo is filled, the bottom layer has time to mature for the same time, that is, about 2.5 hours. Then the section is left to stand for 2.5 hours, and after that it is unloaded. Thus, the lower layer is extinguished for about 5 hours.
Since the unloading of the silos occurs only from the bottom, and the interval between unloading is 2.5 hours, then all subsequent layers are also kept for 5 hours in continuously operating silos.
The quality of the brick and its strength are most significantly influenced by the pressure to which the silicate mass is subjected during pressing. As a result of pressing, the silicate mass is compacted.
The brick pressing process consists of the following main operations: filling the press boxes with mass, pressing the raw material, pushing the raw material onto the table surface, removing the raw material from the table, and placing the raw material on the steaming trolleys.
After pressing, the resulting bricks are stacked by an automatic stacker on trolleys, which are transported to autoclaves, where the bricks are treated with heat and moisture.
To give the necessary strength to the silicate brick, it is treated with saturated steam. The complete technological cycle of steaming bricks in an autoclave consists of cleaning and loading the autoclave, closing and fixing the lids, bypassing steam; live steam inlet, holding under pressure, second bypass, steam release to atmosphere, opening of lids and unloading of the autoclave. The totality of all the above operations makes up the autoclave's operating cycle, which is 10-13 hours.
From the autoclave, silicate brick goes to an open area, where it is stored and shipped to consumers.
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Pierre, not remembering himself from fear, jumped up and ran back to the battery, as to the only refuge from all the horrors that surrounded him.
While Pierre was entering the trench, he noticed that no shots were heard on the battery, but some people were doing something there. Pierre did not have time to understand what kind of people they were. He saw the senior colonel lying with his back to him on the rampart, as if looking at something below, and he saw one soldier, who he saw, who, bursting forward from the people who were holding his hand, shouted: "Brothers!" - and saw something else strange.
But he had not yet had time to realize that the colonel had been killed, that the one who was shouting "brothers!" there was a prisoner that in his eyes another soldier was stabbed in the back with a bayonet. As soon as he ran into the trench, a thin, yellow man with a sweaty face in a blue uniform, sword in hand, ran up to him, shouting something. Pierre, instinctively defending himself against the push, since they, not seeing, fled against each other, put out his hands and grabbed this man (it was a French officer) with one hand on the shoulder, the other proudly. The officer, releasing his sword, grabbed Pierre by the collar.
For a few seconds, both of them looked with frightened eyes at the faces alien to each other, and both were at a loss as to what they had done and what they should do. “Was I taken prisoner or was he taken prisoner by me? - thought each of them. But, obviously, the French officer was more inclined to think that he was taken prisoner, because Pierre's strong hand, moved by involuntary fear, was tightening its grip on his throat. The Frenchman was about to say something, when suddenly a cannonball whistled low and terribly over their heads, and it seemed to Pierre that the French officer's head had been torn off: so quickly he bent it.
Pierre also bent his head and let go of his hands. Not thinking anymore about who had captured whom, the French ran back to the battery, and Pierre downhill, stumbling over the dead and wounded, who, it seemed to him, were catching him by the legs. But before he had time to go down, dense crowds of fleeing Russian soldiers appeared towards him, falling, stumbling and shouting, merrily and violently ran to the battery. (This was the attack that Yermolov attributed to himself, saying that only his courage and happiness could have accomplished this feat, and the attack in which he allegedly threw the St. George's crosses on the mound, which were in his pocket.)
The French, who had occupied the battery, fled. Our troops, shouting "Hurray", drove the French so far beyond the battery that it was difficult to stop them.
The prisoners were taken from the battery, including the wounded French general, who was surrounded by officers. Crowds of the wounded, familiar and unfamiliar to Pierre, Russians and French, with faces disfigured by suffering, walked, crawled and rushed on a stretcher from the battery. Pierre entered the mound, where he spent more than an hour, and from the family circle that took him to him, he did not find anyone. There were many dead here, unknown to him. But he recognized some. The young officer was still curled up at the edge of the rampart, in a pool of blood. The red-faced soldier was still twitching, but he was not removed.
Pierre ran downstairs.
"No, now they will leave it, now they will be horrified at what they have done!" Thought Pierre, aimlessly following the crowds of stretchers moving from the battlefield.
But the sun, obscured by smoke, was still high, and in front, and especially to the left near Semyonovsky, something was boiling in smoke, and the rumble of shots, shooting and cannonade not only did not subside, but intensified to despair, like a man who, straining, screaming with the last bit of strength.
The main action of the Battle of Borodino took place in a space of a thousand fathoms between Borodin and Bagration's flushes. (Outside this space, on the one hand, the Russians made a demonstration of Uvarov's cavalry in half the day, on the other hand, behind Utitsa, there was a clash between Poniatovsky and Tuchkov; but these were two separate and weak actions in comparison with what happened in the middle of the battlefield. ) On the field between Borodino and the flushes, near the forest, on an open and visible stretch from both sides, the main action of the battle took place, in the simplest, most ingenious way.
The battle began with a cannonade from both sides with several hundred guns.
Then, when the smoke covered the whole field, in this smoke two divisions moved (from the French side) to the right, Desse and Compana, on flushes, and to the left of the viceroy's regiments at Borodino.
From the Shevardinsky redoubt, on which Napoleon stood, the flashes were at a distance of a mile, and Borodino was more than two miles in a straight line, and therefore Napoleon could not see what was happening there, especially since the smoke, merging with fog, hid the whole locality. The soldiers of Dessé's division, aiming at the flush, were visible only until they descended under the ravine that separated them from the flush. As soon as they descended into the ravine, the smoke of cannon and rifle shots on the flashes became so thick that it covered the entire rise of that side of the ravine. Something black flashed through the smoke - probably people, and sometimes the glint of bayonets. But whether they were moving or standing, whether they were French or Russian, it was impossible to see from the Shevardinsky redoubt.
The sun rose brightly and slanted beams right into the face of Napoleon, who was looking out from under his arm at the flush. Smoke spread in front of the flushes, and it seemed that the smoke was moving, then it seemed that the troops were moving. The screams of people were sometimes heard from behind the shots, but it was impossible to know what they were doing there.
Napoleon, standing on the mound, looked into the chimney, and in the small circle of the chimney he saw smoke and people, sometimes his own, sometimes Russians; but where that which he saw was, he did not know when he looked again with his simple eye.
He left the mound and began to walk up and down in front of him.
From time to time he stopped, listened to the shots and peered out into the battlefield.
Not only from the place below where he stood, not only from the mound on which some of his generals were now standing, but also from the very flushes, on which there were now together and alternately now Russians, now French, dead, wounded and alive, frightened or maddened soldiers, it was impossible to understand what was happening in this place. For several hours, at this place, amid the incessant firing of rifle and cannon, now there appeared only Russians, now only French, now infantry, now cavalry soldiers; appeared, fell, shot, collided, not knowing what to do with each other, shouted and ran back.
From the battlefield, his sent adjutants and orderlies of his marshals incessantly galloped to Napoleon with reports on the progress of the case; but all these reports were false: both because in the heat of the battle it was impossible to say what was happening at a given moment, and because many adjutapts did not reach the real place of the battle, but transmitted what they heard from others; and also because while the adjutant was passing those two three versts that separated him from Napoleon, the circumstances changed and the news he was carrying was already becoming incorrect. So the adjutant rode up from the Viceroy with the news that Borodino was occupied and the bridge on Koloch was in the hands of the French. The adjutant asked Napoleon if he would order the troops to pass? Napoleon ordered to line up on the other side and wait; but not only while Napoleon was giving this order, but even when the adjutant had just driven away from Borodino, the bridge had already been recaptured and burned by the Russians, in the very battle in which Pierre participated at the very beginning of the battle.
The adjutant, who rode up from the flash with a pale, frightened face, informed Napoleon that the attack had been repulsed and that Companne was wounded and Davout had been killed, and meanwhile the flushes were occupied by another part of the troops, while the adjutant was told that the French had been repulsed, and Davout was alive and only slightly shell-shocked. Conscious of such necessarily false reports, Napoleon made his orders, which were either already executed before he made them, or could not be and were not executed.
Marshals and generals, who were at a closer distance from the battlefield, but just like Napoleon, who did not participate in the battle itself and only occasionally drove under the fire of bullets, without asking Napoleon, made their orders and gave their orders about where and where to shoot, and where to gallop for horsemen, and where to run for foot soldiers. But even their orders, just like the orders of Napoleon, were likewise to the smallest extent and rarely carried out. For the most part, it came out contrary to what they ordered. The soldiers who were ordered to go forward, falling under a grape-shot, fled back; the soldiers, who were ordered to stand still, suddenly, seeing the Russians who suddenly appeared in front of them, sometimes ran back, sometimes rushed forward, and the cavalry galloped without orders to catch up with the fleeing Russians. So, two regiments of cavalry galloped through the Semyonovsky ravine and had just entered the mountain, turned and galloped back with all their might. Infantry soldiers moved in the same way, sometimes running in the wrong direction. All orders about where and when to move the guns, when to send foot soldiers - to shoot, when horsemen - to trample on Russian footmen - all these orders were made by the closest chiefs of units who were in the ranks, without even asking Ney, Davout and Murat, not only Napoleon. They were not afraid of punishment for non-observance of an order or for an unauthorized order, because in a battle the matter concerns the most dear to a person - their own life, and sometimes it seems that salvation lies in running back, sometimes in flight forward, and these people acted in accordance with the mood of the minute. in the midst of the battle. In essence, all these forward and backward movements did not facilitate or change the position of the troops. All their raids and attacks on each other did almost no harm to them, and the harm, death and injury were caused by cannonballs and bullets that flew everywhere in the space through which these people rushed. As soon as these people emerged from the space through which the cannonballs and bullets flew, they were immediately formed by the leaders behind them, subordinated to discipline and, under the influence of this discipline, brought them back into the area of fire, in which they again (under the influence of the fear of death) lost discipline. and rushed about in the random mood of the crowd.
Napoleon's generals - Davout, Ney and Murat, who were in the vicinity of this area of fire and even sometimes drove into it, several times introduced slender and huge masses of troops into this area of fire. But contrary to what had invariably taken place in all previous battles, instead of the expected news of the enemy's flight, slender masses of troops returned from there in frightened, frightened crowds. They arranged them again, but the number of people was getting smaller. At noon Murat sent his adjutant to Napoleon, demanding reinforcements.
Napoleon was sitting under the mound drinking punch when Murat's adjutant rode up to him with assurances that the Russians would be defeated if His Majesty would give him another division.
- Reinforcements? - said Napoleon with stern surprise, as if not understanding his words and looking at the handsome adjutant boy with long curled black hair (just as Murat wore his hair). “Reinforcements! Thought Napoleon. "What are they asking for reinforcements when they have half the army in their hands, directed at the weak, unfortified wing of the Russians!"
“Dites au roi de Naples,” Napoleon said sternly, “qu" il n "est pas midi et que je ne vois pas encore clair sur mon echiquier. Allez ... [Tell the Neapolitan king that it is not noon now and that I cannot see clearly on my chessboard yet. Go ...]
A handsome aide-de-camp boy with long hair, without letting go of his hat, sighing heavily, galloped back to the place where the people were being killed.
Napoleon got up and, calling Caulaincourt and Berthier, began to talk to them about matters not related to the battle.
In the middle of the conversation, which was beginning to interest Napoleon, Berthier's eyes turned to the general with his retinue, who was galloping on a sweaty horse to the mound. It was Belliard. He dismounted from his horse, with quick steps approached the emperor and boldly, in a loud voice, began to prove the need for reinforcements. He swore on honor that the Russians were dead if the emperor would give another division.
Napoleon shrugged his shoulders and, without answering, continued his walk. Belliard began to speak loudly and animatedly with the generals of his retinue who surrounded him.
“You are very ardent, Belliard,” said Napoleon, again approaching the general who had approached. - It's easy to mistake in the heat of the fire. Go and see, and then come to me.
Before Belliard had time to hide from sight, a new messenger from the battlefield galloped up from the other side.
- Eh bien, qu "est ce qu" il y a? [Well, what else?] - said Napoleon in the tone of a man irritated by the constant interference.
- Sire, le prince ... [Sovereign, duke ...] - began the adjutant.
- Requests for reinforcements? - Napoleon said with an angry gesture. The adjutant bowed his head in the affirmative and began to report; but the emperor turned away from him, taking two steps, stopped, came back and called Berthier. - We need to give reserves, - he said, slightly throwing up his hands. - Who do you think to send there? - he turned to Berthier, to this oison que j "ai fait aigle [the caterpillar, which I made an eagle], as he later called it.
- Sovereign, send Claparede's division? - said Berthier, who remembered by heart all the divisions, regiments and battalions.
Napoleon nodded his head in the affirmative.
The adjutant galloped towards Claparede's division. And after a few minutes the young guard, who was standing behind the mound, moved out of their place. Napoleon silently looked in this direction.
“No,” he suddenly turned to Berthier, “I cannot send Claparede. Send Friant's division, ”he said.
Although there was no advantage in sending Friant's division instead of Claparede, and there was even an obvious inconvenience and slowdown in stopping Claparede and sending Friant now, the order was followed with precision. Napoleon did not see that in relation to his troops he played the role of a doctor who interferes with his medicines - a role that he so correctly understood and condemned.
Friant's division, like the others, disappeared into the smoke of the battlefield. Adjutants continued to gallop from different directions, and everyone, as if by agreement, said the same thing. Everyone asked for reinforcements, everyone said that the Russians were holding on to their places and producing un feu d "enfer [hellfire], from which the French army was melting away.
Napoleon sat lost in a folding chair.
Hungry since morning, m r de Beausset, who loved to travel, approached the emperor and dared to respectfully offer his majesty breakfast.
“I hope that now I can congratulate your Majesty on the victory,” he said.
Napoleon silently shook his head. Believing that denial is about winning and not about breakfast, Mr de Beausset allowed himself to playfully respectfully point out that there is no reason in the world that could prevent breakfast when it can be done.
- Allez vous ... [Get out to ...] - Napoleon suddenly said gloomily and turned away. A blissful smile of regret, remorse and delight shone on Monsieur Bosse's face, and he walked with a swimming step to the other generals.
Napoleon experienced a hard feeling, similar to that experienced by an always happy player who insanely threw his money, always won and suddenly, just when he calculated all the randomness of the game, he felt that the more thought out his move, the more surely he loses.
The troops were the same, the generals were the same, the preparations were the same, the same disposition, the same proclamation courte et energique [short and energetic proclamation], he himself was the same, he knew it, he knew that he was even much more experienced and more skillful now than he was before, even the enemy was the same as at Austerlitz and Friedland; but the terrible swing of the hand fell magically powerlessly.
All those previous methods, which happened to be invariably crowned with success: the concentration of batteries on one point, and the attack of reserves to break through the line, and the attack of the cavalry des hommes de fer [iron men] - all these methods have already been used, and not only have not been victories, but the same news came from all sides about the killed and wounded generals, about the need for reinforcements, about the impossibility of bringing down the Russians and about the breakdown of the troops.
Before, after two or three orders, two or three phrases, marshals and adjutants galloped with congratulations and cheerful faces, announcing trophies for the corps of prisoners, des faisceaux de drapeaux et d "aigles ennemis, [bunches of enemy eagles and banners,] and cannons, and carts, and Murat he only asked for permission to let the cavalry in to pick up the convoys. ”So it was at Lodi, Marengo, Arcole, Jena, Austerlitz, Wagram, etc., etc. Now something strange was happening to his troops.
Despite the news of the capture of the flushes, Napoleon saw that this was not the same, not at all what had been in all his previous battles. He saw that the same feeling that he experienced was experienced by all the people around him, experienced in the matter of battles. All faces were sad, all eyes avoided each other. Only Bosse could not understand the meaning of what was happening. Napoleon, on the other hand, after his long experience of the war, knew well what it meant for eight hours, after all the expended efforts, that the attacker had not won the battle. He knew that it was almost a lost battle and that the slightest chance could now — at that tense point of hesitation on which the battle stood — destroy him and his troops.
When he went over in his imagination all this strange Russian campaign, in which not a single battle was won, in which neither banners, nor guns, nor corps of troops were taken in two months, when he looked at the covertly sad faces of those around him and listened to reports that that the Russians are still standing - a terrible feeling, similar to the feeling experienced in dreams, seized him, and all the unfortunate accidents that could ruin him occurred to him. The Russians could attack his left wing, they could tear his middle, a stray cannonball could kill him. All this was possible. In his previous battles, he considered only the chances of success, but now countless accidents appeared to him, and he expected them all. Yes, it was like in a dream, when a person imagines a villain approaching him, and the person in a dream swung and hit his villain with that terrible effort that, he knows, should destroy him, and feels that his hand, powerless and soft, falls like a rag, and the horror of irresistible death grips the helpless man.
The news that the Russians were attacking the left flank of the French army aroused this horror in Napoleon. He sat silently under the mound on a folding chair, his head bowed and his elbows resting on his knees. Berthier approached him and offered to take a ride along the line to see what state the case was in.
- What? What do you say? - said Napoleon. - Yes, tell me to give me a horse.
He sat on horseback and rode to Semyonovsky's.
In the slowly spreading powder smoke throughout the space through which Napoleon rode, horses and people lay in pools of blood, singly and in heaps. Napoleon and none of his generals have ever seen such horror, so many killed in such a small space. The rumble of guns, which did not stop for ten hours in a row and exhausted the ear, gave special significance to the spectacle (like music in living pictures). Napoleon rode up to the Semyonovsky Heights and through the smoke he saw rows of people in uniforms of colors unusual for his eyes. They were Russians.
The Russians stood in dense rows behind Semyonovsky and the kurgan, and their guns hummed and smoked incessantly along their lines. The battle was gone. There was an ongoing assassination that could lead neither the Russians nor the French to anything. Napoleon stopped his horse and fell back into the same reverie from which Berthier had brought him; he could not stop the deed that was being done in front of him and around him and which was considered to be directed by him and dependent on him, and this business to him for the first time, due to failure, seemed unnecessary and terrible.
One of the generals who drove up to Napoleon allowed himself to suggest that he bring the old guard into action. Ney and Berthier, who were standing beside Napoleon, looked at each other and smiled contemptuously at the general's senseless proposal.
Napoleon lowered his head and was silent for a long time.
- A huit cent lieux de France je ne ferai pas demolir ma garde, [For three thousand two hundred versts from France, I cannot afford to defeat my guard.] - he said and, turning his horse, rode back to Shevardin.
Kutuzov was sitting, his gray head bowed and his heavy body lowered, on a carpeted bench, in the very place where Pierre had seen him in the morning. He did not make any orders, but only agreed or did not agree to what was offered to him.
“Yes, yes, do it,” he replied to various proposals. - Yes, yes, go, my dear, look, - he turned to one, then to another of the confidants; or: “No, don't, we'd better wait,” he said. He listened to reports brought to him, gave orders when required by his subordinates; but, listening to the reports, he seemed not to be interested in the meaning of the words of what was being said to him, but something else in the expressions of the persons who reported in the tone of speech interested him. With many years of military experience, he knew and with his senile mind understood that it was impossible for one person to lead hundreds of thousands of people fighting death, and he knew that the fate of the battle was not decided by the orders of the commander-in-chief, not the place where the troops were stationed, not the number of guns and killed people, and that elusive force, called the spirit of the army, and he followed this force and led it, as far as it was in his power.
The general expression on Kutuzov's face was concentrated, calm attention and tension, barely overcoming the tiredness of a weak and old body.
At eleven o'clock in the morning, they brought him the news that the flushes occupied by the French were again repulsed, but that Prince Bagration was wounded. Kutuzov gasped and shook his head.
“Go to Prince Peter Ivanovich and find out in detail what and how,” he said to one of the adjutants, and after that he turned to Prince Virtemberg, who was standing behind him:
“Would your highness please take command of the first army?
Soon after the prince's departure, so soon that he still could not get to Semyonovsky, the prince's adjutant returned from him and reported to his lordship that the prince was asking for troops.
Kutuzov winced and sent Dokhturov the order to take command of the first army, and the prince, without whom, as he said, he could not do at these important moments, asked to return to his place. When the news of the capture of Murat was brought and the staff congratulated Kutuzov, he smiled.
“Wait, gentlemen,” he said. “The battle is won, and there is nothing extraordinary about the capture of Murat. But it's better to wait to rejoice. “However, he sent an adjutant to drive through the troops with this news.
When Shcherbinin galloped from the left flank with a report about the French occupation of the flushes and Semenovsky, Kutuzov, guessing from the sounds of the battlefield and from Shcherbinin's face that the news was bad, stood up, as if stretching his legs, and, taking Shcherbinin by the arm, took him aside ...
- Go, my dear, - he said to Yermolov, - see if there is anything you can do.
Kutuzov was in Gorki, in the center of the position of the Russian army. The attack directed by Napoleon on our left flank was repulsed several times. In the center, the French did not move further than Borodin. From the left flank, Uvarov's cavalry forced the French to flee.
In the third hour, the attacks of the French stopped. On all the faces who came from the battlefield, and on those who stood around him, Kutuzov read an expression of tension that reached the highest degree. Kutuzov was pleased with the success of the day beyond expectations. But physical strength left the old man. Several times his head sank low, as if falling, and he dozed off. Dinner was served to him.
Wing adjutant Volzogen, the same one who, passing by Prince Andrew, said that the war should be im Raum verlegon [move to space (German)], and whom Bagration so hated, drove up to Kutuzov during lunch. Wolzogen arrived from Barclay with a report on the progress of affairs on the left flank. The prudent Barclay de Tolly, seeing the crowds of the wounded running back and the frustrated backs of the army, having weighed all the circumstances of the case, decided that the battle was lost, and with this news he sent his favorite to the commander-in-chief.
Kutuzov barely chewed fried chicken and looked at Wolzogen with narrowed, amused eyes.
Wolzogen, casually stretching his legs, with a half-disdainful smile on his lips, approached Kutuzov, lightly touching the visor with his hand.
Wolzogen treated his lord with a certain affected negligence, with the aim of showing that he, as a highly educated military man, allows the Russians to make an idol out of this old, useless person, and he himself knows with whom he is dealing. “Der alte Herr (as the Germans called Kutuzov in their circle) macht sich ganz bequem, [The old gentleman settled down quietly (German)] - thought Wolzogen and, glancing sternly at the plates in front of Kutuzov, began to report to the old gentleman the state of affairs on the left flank as Barclay ordered him and as he himself saw and understood.
Brick is the most ancient building material. Its history goes back several millennia, but no one can say for sure by whom and when the first copy was made. The most ancient objects made of baked clay were found at a site of the Ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic) in Slovakia, their age is 25 thousand years.
The first mentions of brick as a building material date back to the 5th - 4th millennium BC. e. in the architecture of the Dynastic period (Ancient Egypt).
During excavations in Jemdet-Nasr, traces of the construction of the late 4th - early 3rd millennium BC were found. e. from thin flat bricks (the so-called "rimhen").
At the beginning of the III millennium BC. e. hand-made one-sided convex brick was replaced by bricks made in wooden forms, initially oblong (20 x 30 x 10 cm - Old Babylonian brick).
Clay, sometimes with an admixture of ash and bitumen, was used as a binding material during the construction. Lime mortar began to be used only from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e.
The next step in the history of brick making was the appearance of plinths. The Greek word "plinthos" actually means "brick". The term "ceramics" refers to fired clay products. In Greek, "keramos" is clay. In ancient Athens, potters lived compactly in one of the city's districts. This area began to be called "Keramik" by the Athenians. Since that time, the universal name "ceramics" has been assigned to any objects made of clay and fired in a kiln. In addition to pottery, the well-known brick was the most important product of the pottery craft.
The brick did not pass by the no less famous Roman civilization. Here, for the first time, they began to build arches, vaults and other complex structures from bricks with dimensions of 45 x 30 x 10 cm.
In the Ancient East, bricks were shaped like clay bottles and resembled modern, well-known loaves of white bread.
In ancient Russia, brick production began in the 10th century, this is due to the influence of Byzantine culture. As a result of the baptism of Rus in 988, not only priests, but also builders arrived here from Byzantium, who brought with them the secret of brick making. Since that time, the active use of bricks as a building material began. It is believed that the Church of the Tithes in Kiev became the first structure in Russia built of bricks.
Brick production in Prussia
Brick production in Prussia began during its conquest by the Teutonic Order at the beginning of the 13th century. After consolidating the newly conquered territories, the Order began building castles and fortifications made of natural stone and fired bricks, for the production of which there were huge reserves of clay.
At the initial stage, these were ramparts with wooden walls, towers and blockhouses for the garrison. After securing the territory and stabilizing the situation, the administration of the Order began to rebuild the castles using stone and fired bricks. When for the first time in the construction of castles the Order began to use bricks, it is impossible to determine exactly. German researchers indicate different dates, but most likely this happened after the suppression of the first Prussian uprising, presumably in 1250-55.
Prussia was poor in stone reserves; there were no quarries on its territory. But there were huge reserves of clay, necessary for the production of bricks. Therefore, the main building material for Prussian castles,
and later the church and residential buildings were hand-molded baked bricks.
Its production was quite expensive and laborious. The extracted clay was piled into shallow but spacious pits, then filled with water and left in this state for 1.5-2 years, and sometimes more, depending on the quality of the clay. Then the clay was kneaded and the molding teams got down to work. They each had a wooden mold of approximately the same size. It was manually filled with prepared clay, carefully tamped and laid out directly on the grass or prepared area. For this, large meadows were chosen near the dwelling. The clay dried up for a while. During this time, dogs and other domestic animals could run along the not yet dried forms, leaving traces of their paws on them. But not only animals left their facsimiles. Often small children, finding themselves unattended, wandered into the forms prepared for drying. Until now, we come across bricks with "fingerprints" of children's feet.
After drying, the bricks were fired in the temporary stoves built nearby. With imperfect firing technology, there were often cases that the brick loaded in the kiln was fired, and it turned out to be black in the usual red shade.
Black brick, if it had a sufficiently strong base, was used to decorate the masonry of the walls. It could be diamond-shaped patterns (castles Insterburg and Saalau, order churches in the village of Gvardeyskoye of the Bagrationovsky district and the village of Rodniki of the Guryevsky district), preserved to this day, patterns showing the features and variety of brickwork (Brandenburg castle) and some figures in the form cross - the order church in Kreuzburg.
By these patterns, you can judge the time of laying. This is usually the end of the 13th century or the 14th century. The dimensions of the bricks made were quite different, sometimes the difference reached several centimeters:
2900 x 1400 x 900 mm - Schaaken castle
3000 x 1350 x 1000 mm - Preussisch Aylau castle
3050 x 1450 x 950 mm - Brandenburg Castle
3200 x 1550 x 1000 mm - Balga castle.
The largest brick of the Order period found on the territory of the Kaliningrad region today can be considered a brick from the Balga castle 3350 x 2150 x 900 mm and weighing 10 kg 720 g.
In Russia, bricks of this size are called “monastery bricks”.
In addition to ordinary bricks, shaped (figured) bricks were also required for the internal surfaces of arches, windows, doors and for the supports of arches. Such bricks gave uniqueness and individuality to each room.
It is safe to say that square slabs were also made of clay, with which the floor of the first (basement) floor was laid, or arched ceilings of basements (Preussisch-Aylau castle).
More than 100 expensive castles were built in the 14th century. The pinnacle of this considerable military-economic enterprise was the restructuring of Marienburg from the Komtur castle into the residence of the great master (beginning of the 14th century).
Today it is the largest medieval brick complex in Europe.
After the secularization of the Order in 1525, due to the lack of government orders, the volume of brick production declined sharply, but the need for it was still felt. In order to save on building materials, some of the locks were dismantled into bricks (Balga, Brandenburg, Kreuzburg, Laptau, Lochstedt, Povunden, Tirinberg, Fischhausen, etc.). This situation continued until the 18th century.
Brick production has always been highly developed in Prussia. Material for him was available in abundance both before and now.
Authors: head of the department of local history literature S. M. Postnikova, founder of the brick museum D. Shilov photo of the largest brick, "matryoshkas", church, Kreuzburg castle - D. Shilov drawing of Brandenburg castle: A. P. Bakhtin
December 2009
http://gorodkanta.ru/print.php?newsid=4085
Few building materials could rival clay in antiquity. Its development by man lasted more than one millennium. The age of the oldest objects made of baked clay, found in Slovakia, at a Paleolithic site, is about 24 thousand years. Fired clay products are referred to as "ceramics", and the most important product in pottery is brick. Fired brick has been used in construction since ancient times. An example of this is the Egyptian buildings erected in the third and second millennia BC. Brick, as a building material, is mentioned in the Bible, and was already used at the time of people who settled the Earth after the Great Flood (Old Testament. Genesis. Ch. 11-3). Brick was of great importance for the architecture of Mesopotamia and Ancient Rome, where arches, vaults and other complex structures were laid out of it. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, they knew how to burn bricks as far back as three millennia BC. Gradually, the raw brick was replaced by the ceramic one. This is due to the low water resistance. Ceramic bricks were more reliable and durable. It turns out by firing raw. According to the data left by Herodotus, during the time when King Nebuchadnezzar ruled Babylon (VI century BC), this city was one of the largest and most beautiful in the world, which is largely due to ceramic bricks. In describing the prototype of the Tower of Babel, a seven-tiered temple, Herodotus noted that the temple was faced with blue glazed bricks. The city-state of Ur, located in Mesopotamia, was surrounded by a wall of adobe bricks, the width of which was 27 meters. Ur was the capital of southern Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Brick had a peculiar shape in the Ancient East. It wore the shape of an earthen bottle and looked like modern loaves of white bread. The most common form of the oldest brick was a square with sides of 30-60 cm and a thickness of 3-9 cm. Such bricks were used in Ancient Greece and Byzantium, and they were called plinth, which means "brick" in Greek.
The appearance of bricks in the 10th century in ancient Russia was due to the Byzantine culture. It began to be widely used since the end of the century. The secret of brick making was brought with them by Byzantine builders, who came with priests, scientists and other craftsmen after their baptism in 988. The tithe church in Kiev became the first brick building in ancient Russia. The construction of the first brick houses in Moscow was carried out in 1450, and the first brick factory in Russia was built in 1475. Previously, brick was produced mainly in monasteries. It was used during the restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin in 1485-1495. An example of this was the construction of the Kremlin walls and churches, which was carried out under the guidance of Italian craftsmen. In 1500, a brick Kremlin was erected in Nizhny Novgorod, 20 years later, an identical one was built in Tula, and in 1424, in the Moscow region, the Novodevichy Convent was built. The architects of ancient Russia widely used plinth 40x40 cm in size and 2.5-4 cm in thickness. For example, the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev took place using such a plinth. Its shape and dimensions are explained by the simplicity of molding, drying and firing of "thin" bricks. A characteristic feature of plinth masonry is rather thick mortar joints with interlayers of natural stone after several rows of masonry. Plinth was used in Russia until the 15th century. It was replaced by the "Aristotelian brick", which is similar in size to its modern counterpart. Over the centuries, the shape and size of a brick has been constantly changing, but the main criterion has always been the convenience of a bricklayer working with it, so that the size and strength of the hand are commensurate with the brick. For example, according to Russian GOST, the weight of a brick should be no more than 4.3 kg. The standards for modern bricks were established in 1927 and remain so to this day: 250x120x65 mm. Each of the faces of the brick has its own name: the largest is called "bed", the long side is called "spoons", and the smallest is called "poke". The assessment of the quality of building materials under Peter I was very strict. One of the easiest ways to check the quality of bricks was to dump all the batch brought to the rack from the cart, and if more than three pieces were broken, then the whole batch was rejected.
And this is how brick production in Tanzania looks like.
The first brick building in St. Petersburg is considered to be the chambers of the Admiralty Councilor Kikin. They were built in 1707. Later, in 1710, the house of Chancellor G.P. Golovin was built on Troitskaya Square. Then the palace of Tsarevna Natalya Alekseevna, who was the sister of Peter I, was built in 1711. In 1712, the summer and winter palaces of Peter I were built. From 1710 to 1727. the Menshikov Palace was built - the first large brick house in St. Petersburg. The palace was rebuilt many times, but, nevertheless, it retained its original appearance. Now it is used as a museum and is a branch of the State Hermitage Museum.
Already in the 18th century, manufacturers were ordered to brand their bricks in order to identify the scammers. In 1713, by order of Peter I, new brick factories were built near St. Petersburg. Each of their owners was tasked by the emperor to produce as many bricks as possible. Craftsmen for work were collected from all over Russia. Also, according to the decree, it was forbidden to build stone buildings in other cities of the country under the threat of confiscation of property and sending into exile. This point was written specifically in order to leave bricklayers and other craftsmen without work, in the expectation that they themselves would come to build up Petersburg. Anyone who entered the city had to "pay" the fare with the bricks he brought with him. There is a version that Kirpichny Lane was so named because at its location there was a warehouse of bricks taken for the entrance to the city.
Brick making techniques continued to be primitive and time consuming until the 19th century. The brick was molded by hand, it was dried only in the summer, firing took place in floor ovens, temporary huts, which were laid out of dried raw bricks. The middle of the 19th century was marked by the beginning of the active development of the brick industry, as a result of which modern factories appeared that produce bricks of our time. Brick has been and remains the most popular building material for various structures, be it simple fences, luxury villas or multi-storey buildings. Due to the variety of colors and shapes, brick buildings always have a unique look. Ease of use, strength and durability of this building material will keep it among the leaders among building materials for a long time to come. Today, more than 15,000 combinations of sizes, shapes, surface textures and brick colors are produced in the world. Solid and hollow bricks, porous ceramic stones with increased heat-shielding properties are produced.
Lazybones, only pros.
And the size to match:
Seven - full face, twelve - in profile
And the length is twenty-five.
Tsvetkov Leonid
The modern construction industry is inconceivable without such a simple and seemingly uncomplicated invention of mankind - a brick. On the pages of the Internet portal for low-rise construction http: // site you will find a huge amount of materials and articles to one degree or another covering the construction of houses and cottages made of bricks or with the use of modern ceramic products - porous blocks and stones. In this article, we want to tell you about the history of brick building, dating back to the times of Ancient civilizations, Egyptian pharaohs and emperors of Rome.
Numerous archaeological excavations allow us to say with confidence that first bricks as a building material were used by man about 5 thousand years ago. But who exactly invented brick it is impossible to say for certain. Most likely, the brick in the understanding that we put into this word was not an invention of one person, but the fruit of the evolutionary development of the very technology of building a strong and inexpensive dwelling from scrap materials. Scientists were not able to accurately indicate and find the place of construction of the first brick building, but the fact that these buildings were being erected in Mesopotamia, the territory between the Tigris and the Euphrates (Mesopotamia), is not at all accidental. The fact is that in these places there was always plenty of water, clay and straw. And all this grace was illuminated by the hot sun almost all year round. It was from these natural materials that local residents built their homes. The buildings were erected from straw covered with clay.
The clay dries out in the sun and becomes hard, at the same time it does not allow moisture to pass through and protects well from bad weather. People noticed this, and since they tried to make their work easier, they invented this, at first glance, unpretentious bar of straw and clay, which we call brick. The technology for making the first bricks was simple.: sticky clay was mixed with water, straw was added for strength and strength, and the bricks already formed in this way dried out under the hot rays of the sun and became hard like stone.
It was still adobe brick or raw brick. Raw brick and now in our time it is widely used in many countries of the world as the main building material.
The first who mastered the technology of firing bricks in a kiln were the ancient Egyptians.... The images that have survived from the time of the pharaohs clearly show how brick was made, and temples and houses were built from it. For example, the city walls of Jericho are made of bricks, which were shaped like today's loaves of white bread.
Brick became the main building material in Mesopotamia and almost all cities during the heyday of this civilization were built from it. For example, in Babylon, the most beautiful city of the ancient world, all buildings were built of bricks.
The ancient Romans and Greeks became great masters in the production of bricks and in the construction of buildings and structures. It is from the Greek word "plinthos", which literally means "brick", that the plinths got their name, a product that marked a new milestone in the history of brick production.
It is interesting:
Another Greek word, "keramos", translates to clay. And the term "ceramics" means products made of baked clay. Once in ancient Athens, potters lived compactly in one of the city's districts. This area began to be called "Ceramic" by the Athenians.
Plinths- the most ancient burnt bricks. Made in special wooden molds. Plinth was dried for 10-14 days, then fired in an oven. They were square and large in size. In ancient Rome, plinths were usually made in the following dimensions 50 x 55 x 4.5 cm, and in Byzantium 30 x 35 x 2.5.
Plinths were made and smaller, but they were used as shingles. As you can see, the ancient plinths were much thinner than modern bricks, but this circumstance did not in the least prevent the same Romans from building famous Roman arches and vaults from them.
Such bricks were easily molded, dried and fired. They were built from them using a thick layer of mortar, often equal in thickness to the plinth itself, which made the wall of the temple "striped". Sometimes, after several rows of plinths, a row of natural stone was laid. In Byzantium plinth walls almost never plastered.
In pre-Mongol Kievan Rus, which took over a lot from the culture of Byzantium, including construction technologies, plinth became the main material for the construction of structural elements of buildings and was used in the ancient Russian temple architecture of the 10th - early 13th centuries, in particular, St. Sophia Cathedral was built from them ( Kiev), 1037, Church of the Savior on Berestovo, 1113-25, Annunciation Church (Vitebsk), Borisoglebskaya Church (Grodno).
The first brick workshops in Russia appeared at monasteries. Their products were mainly used for the needs of the temple. It is considered that the first religious building in Russia, built of brick, was the Church of the Tithes in Kiev.
It is interesting: In the scientific literature, it was suggested that, along with the plinth in Russia, already in the XII-XIII centuries. made and block brick, which was used together with plinth. In fact, block bricks of Romanesque origin first penetrated Kiev from Poland in the very last pre-Mongol years. Squared bricks together with plinths were used only in those cases when buildings that were built earlier were repaired with them. Examples are the Cathedral of the Dormition of the Pechersk Monastery, the Kiev Rotunda, the Cathedral of Michael in Pereyaslavl, rebuilt shortly after they were damaged in the earthquake of 1230. In addition, plinths of a narrow format were sometimes mistaken for block bricks, i.e. "halves", especially if they were unusually thick (for example, in the Novgorod Cathedral of the Antoniev Monastery and the Old Ladoga Cathedral of the Nikolsky Monastery - more than 7 cm).
In fact, in Muscovite Russia molded brick became widely used only from the end of the 15th century, and the first brick factory was founded in 1475. And already from this brick the walls of the Kremlin in Moscow were erected.
It is interesting:
The history of the emergence of the first brick factory in the Moscow kingdom is quite interesting. In 1475 he was invited to Moscow from Italy architect Aristotle Fioravanti for the construction of the Kremlin. But Aristotle began not with construction, but with setting up the production of bricks with a special kiln. And very quickly this plant began to produce very quality brick... In honor of the architect, he was nicknamed "Aristotelian brick". The walls of the Novgorod and Kazan Kremlin were also erected from this "clay stone". "Aristotelian brick" had an almost identical appearance to modern bricks and the following dimensions are 289x189x67 mm. "Sovereign Brick" was the first in Russia that involved bandaging the seams.
Despite the exceptional popularity of bricks as a building material, up to the 19th century, the technique of brick production in Russia remained primitive and time consuming. The bricks were molded by hand, dried exclusively in summer, and fired in floor ovens-temporary huts, lined with dried raw bricks or small portable ovens. In the middle of the 19th century in technology brick production there was a real revolution. For the first time, an annular kiln and a belt press were built, and the first dryers for bricks appeared. At the same time, clay processing machines, runners, dryers, and clay mills appeared.
This made it possible to bring brick production to a qualitatively new level. The next question arose about product quality. In order to separate the scammers from the bona fide producers, a branding system was invented. That is each brick factory had its own brand name - a stamp that was applied to the brick... In the 19th century, the first technical description of brick, a list of its parameters and properties, also appeared.
It is interesting: Under Peter the Great, the quality of bricks was evaluated very strictly. The batch of bricks brought to the construction site was simply dumped from the cart: if more than 3 bricks were broken, then the whole batch was rejected. During the construction of St. Petersburg, Peter I introduced the so-called. "stone tax" - payment with bricks for entering the city.
Modern brick acquired the familiar dimensions - 250x120x65 mm - in 1927, its weight is no more than 4.3 kg.
Five thousand years have passed, and brick is still the most popular building materials and is not going to concede its primacy to anyone. The evolution in the development of technology for the production of bricks and ceramic products is somewhat akin to the evolution of man according to Darwin's theory. If we draw an analogy, then first the emergence of primitive forms (adobe huts), then primitive man (raw brick), now modern man (burnt brick and ceramic stones). The evolutionary development of man and the technology of brick production go hand in hand, and this pattern testifies that as long as our civilization exists, brick will also exist, as the basis of the entire construction industry created by mankind for many centuries.
Construction of houses from Porotherm blocks >>>
Solid brick
Stack of bricks with blind voids
Ceramic brick, Red brick- baked clay brick. The most used type of brick for the construction of buildings, structures, furnaces.
To obtain ceramic bricks, raw bricks are fired in continuous ring and tunnel kilns. The clay begins to bake at a temperature of 800-1000 ° C. Normally fired bricks acquire a characteristic brick color.
The voids can be perpendicular (vertical) or parallel (horizontal) to the brick bed.
They are subdivided into grades: M100, M125, M150, M175, M200, M250, M300 (the number means kgf / cm 2 - withstanding the compressive load).
| Product type | Type designation | Length | Width | Thickness | Size designation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brick | KR | 250 | 120 | 65 | 1 nf |
| 250 | 85 | 65 | 0.7 NF | ||
| 250 | 120 | 88 | 1.4 NF | ||
| 250 | 120 | 140 | 2.1 NF | ||
| 250 | 60 | 65 | 0.5 NF | ||
| 288 | 138 | 65 | 1.3 NF | ||
| 288 | 138 | 88 | 1.8 NF | ||
| 250 | 120 | 55 | 0.8 NF | ||
| Brick with horizontal voids |
KRG | 250 | 120 | 88 | 1.4 NF |
| 250 | 200 | 70 | 1.8 NF |
