The base is the soil layers that lie under the foundation, as well as to the side of it.
The base is natural and artificial.
The thickness of the soil, which occurs under the building, and the perceive load from it is called natural reason.
If the natural array of the soil is not able to perceive the load from the built building and requires work on its strengthening, then such a basis is called artificial.
When building buildings on a natural basis:
The soils that occur in the thicker of this base must have the necessary compressibility;
Soils must have sufficient carrying capacity;
Soils should not have bubbly properties;
The soils must resist the effects of groundwater, which dissolve some rocks make the smallest particles from their thickness, as a result, the porosity of the base appears, which reduces its carrying ability;
Suitability:
Rocky- in the form of a solid or fractured array of quartzite, limestone, sandstones, such soils are practically not compressed, are not subject to bent and are excellent grounds.
Large-chip - in the form of layers of large stone and pebbles, these soils are small compressible, non-bumpinists, waterproof and are good bases.
Sandy- Depending on the size of the sand particles, the soils are divided into: grave, large, medium, small, dusty. Grave, large and medium sand under load are quickly compacted, are not exhausted during freezing, are durable and reliable. Small and dusty sands with increasing and subsequent freezing become bubbling and the carrying capacity is reduced.
Clay - in a dry and low-voltage condition, the load on the building is capable of perceiving, but at moisturizing, the carrying ability of these soils is reduced; Such soils are distinguished by a long precipitate under load and swelling during freezing;
Lesvidny - in natural condition have pores in the form of vertical tubes; In a dry condition, they have sufficient carrier ability, but with moisturizing their structure is destroyed and drawdowns form under the action of the load;
Artificial foundations.If the bases of the base within the compressible thickness do not have the necessary bearing capacity (bulk soils peat, loose sandy to thin soils with a large content of organic residues, etc.), they are artificially strengthened or apply foundations, transmitting loads on the underlying durable soils, in particular , pile foundations. Selection of pile foundations or methods of strengthening soils are made by technical and economic comparison different options Devices of bases and foundations. In mass civil construction, as a rule, artificial bases of two types are used: the basis of the soil generated by sealing, and the base created by its fixing.
Foundations, their classification.
According to constructive schemes:
tape, columnar, solid, pile;
by material:
natural stone, boot concrete, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wood;
by the nature of the work:
rigid (compression) and flexible (compression and bending);
in the depth of the bud:
minor embedding (up to 5 m) and deep downlies (more than 5 m);
Tape foundations.
In the form of a continuous strip under the carrier walls of the building.
FL (reinforced concrete), length - 3000 mm, width - 1600 mm
FBS (concrete), block height - 580 mm (280 pretty), width - 300, 400, 500, 600 mm
Seam - 20 mm
Foundations are columns.
It consists of a subsklovnik, in which a glass of column is arranged, a slab part consisting of steps. (1.2, 3)
Foundations pile and solid.
A solid foundation (in the form of a solid monolithic reinforced concrete plate) is arranged under the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe building, such foundations are erected with significant loads or weak and inhomogeneous soils. They provide uniform sediment of the building and protect basement From the backrest.
The pile foundation consists of piles and woodwork.
Classification by the nature of the work:
Persistent piles (transmit a load from the building to the underlying array of dense soils);
Hanging piles (seal soil and transmit a load from the building);
by material: metal, wooden and reinforced concrete.
according to constructive solutions:
Clogged (manufactured at the enterprise are placed in ground using mechanisms);
Prismatic (w / w, solid section, section size: 200x200 and 300x300, length: 4.5-12 m);
Prismatic (with a round plane, section size: 300x300, 250x250, Length: 3-8 m);
Tubular (R / B, Diameter: 400-800 mm, Length: 4-12 m)
Wooden (made of coniferous breeds);
Pyramidoidal (with a top section of 300x300, inclined side faces up to 14 °, Length: 5-12 m);
Printed (from monolithic concrete, laid in pre-drilled wells and combined on top of the frame);
in the depth of the bud:
short (3-6 m)
long (more than 6 m)
Ventilation Called a set of events and devices necessary to ensure a given state. aerial In work premises. Among the sanitary and technical measures, the ventilation occupies one of the main places in the system of recovery of working conditions in production. Thanks to the ventilation, in many cases, it is possible to achieve a decrease in the dustiness of air and contamination with its harmful gases and pairs, normalize microclumatic conditions.
Types of production ventilation
According to the joint venture, the air ventilation is divided by the air ventilation at e s t e x n n y y and m. In the z and in and s and m about with t and from s p o s o b a o r, and the u o za and the ventilation can be ME And about the exchange rate.
According to P and N C and P U D E Y C T and I, the ventilation units are divided into:
1) in y t n y e (intended for air removal), which in turn may be m or about b u and m and 2) Support (carry out air supply), which are subjected to the m. (Air souls, curtains, oasis) and oh and e (multiple or focused).
For natural ventilation The air exchange occurs due to the difference in temperatures, and therefore the specific weights of the air inside the production premises and outside it, that is, they are under the influence of thermal pressure and due to the impact of wind (wind pressure).
The action of these sources is the greater the greater the difference in temperatures in the upper and lower areas of the room and the greater the height of the latter.
The difference in air temperature inside the room (where it is higher) and the outside causes the flow of cold air into the room and displacing warm air from it. Under the action of wind from the windward side of the building overpressure And fresh air enters the room. From the tarnished side of the building is created. The pressure is created, as a result of which the removal of warm or contaminated air from the room occurs. These phenomena are widely used for natural ventilation in shops with excess heat dissipation. However, large air exchanges created by natural ventilation do not always provide due hygienic effect.
With a large area of \u200b\u200blooseness in outdoor fences production buildings, opening the gate and doors during the cold season due to thermal and windproofs, drafts and supercooling of the working area may occur, and with highly remote jobs from the locations of the outdoor air in summer, on the contrary, the conditions of insufficient ventilation of the working area can be created. In order to ensure normal natural ventilation requires a special air exchange and management of them. production premises It may be n E about r and n and s o v a n n o n o n o r g a n and s o v a n n o th.
With inorganized ventilation (ventilating), the flow and removal of air occurs through windows, forms, special openings, as well as through looseness of external fences (infiltration). Organized adjustable natural ventilation of industrial premises is called aeration. It is carried out with the help of specially created structural elements of industrial buildings - aeration lamps.
In the absence of light-easery lanterns in the floors, natural ventilation can be somewhat improved using special channels or mines operating under the action of thermal pressure. For this, the shafts are supplied with special nozzles -deflectors (Fig. 13). The effect of deflectors is based on the fact that the wind, blowing the circumference of the nozzle, creates a vacuum in it, so that the deflector contributes to the suction of the air through the mine. For complete
the use of the wind pressure of the shaft must be placed on the highest areas of the roof. Shakhty with deflectors are used to remove contaminated or superheated air from the premises of a relatively small volume (cowners, pigsty, agricultural workshops), as well as for localized hot gases from blacksmith Gorn, stoves, etc.
The most rational way of natural air is aeration. It is used for
carrying shops with large inside heat inspection, contributing to the removal of not only excess heat, but with it and harmful vapors and gases. Aerial buildings are equipped with three rows of openings (1-3), equipped with special framugs. In the walls of buildings, the openings are arranged at two levels: at a height of 1 - 1.5 m from the floor (1) and at a height of 4-6 m from the floor (2). In the upper part of the building (usually in the overlap), glazed light-inaeration lights are equipped, the openings of which are equipped with framugs, capable of opening on the required value (3).
In the summer, fresh air enters through the open lower openings (1) and removed through the upper (2). The scheme of movement of air flow at faceless, see fig. 14, a, b and in windy weather. IN winter time The flow of outer air occurs through the top openings in the walls. The height is accepted with such a calculation so that the cold outer air, dropping to the working area, has managed to warm up to stirring with the warm air of the room. This prevents the supercooling of working ones.
The air exchange is regulated by changing the position of the Framug's sash. When calculating aeration, the required area of \u200b\u200bopenings determine. Calculation is made for summer time when eyelords as the most unfavorable to aeration.
The wind effect usually favorably affects the air exchange, reinforcing it. However, at certain directions of the wind, it occurs in the upper opening of the building lamps, as a result of which the outdoor air flows are mixed with dust and gases and fall into the working area. To exclude this phenomenon, so-called unlucky lights are arranged, equipped with windproof shields. Available in the workshop at aeration may be cooled by thin water spraying with nozzles in the plane of the supply openings.
Steaming, water lowers the ambient temperature and increases its humidity somewhat. The use of artificial cooling of the supply air of aeration devices is especially important in the southern regions of the country.
Aerial buildings must meet certain architectural and construction requirements. The building must be free around the perimeter to ensure the possibility of entering it outdoor air through aeration openings. In the form of exception, an extension is allowed, but not more than 40% of the length of the longitudinal walls.
Best conditions Aerations are created in union-ranking single-storey buildings of sufficient height. It is allowed to place aerial workshops in the upper floors of multi-storey buildings.
Big difficulties are found with natural ventilation of multiplet buildings whose width can reach 100-200 m or more. Under these conditions, the supply of fresh unpolluted air to work places located in the center of the room is almost impossible. In these cases, aeration is carried out through special Baturin design lights, in which the influx and extract
disconnected (at the same time they are unmenled).
It should be borne in mind that the aeration of multiplet buildings with an influx through the holes in the roof with small excess heat in winter can lead to the supercooling of the working area. In such premises, mechanical ventilation with heating air should be provided. For aeration management, reliable mechanisms must be equipped. The advantage of aeration is the possibility
the implementation of large air exchanges (up to several million cubic meters per hour). The device of aeration system is cheaper than mechanical ventilation systems, but much more complicated in management, as it depends on weather conditions: The magnitude of the air exchange can significantly fluctuate depending on the wind speed, temperature mode Inside the building and other conditions. As a result, in the summer, the efficiency of ventilation can significantly decrease due to an increase in the outdoor air temperature, especially in mad weather. Aeration is not always possible to carry out fresh air to all jobs, especially remote.
A serious obstacle to the use of aeration is that, along with heat adaptation, the air of the respective work premises also contains harmful pairs, gases and aerosols, which will discompose into the outer atmosphere without purification.
When using aeration, cleaning ventilation air is impossible.
Mechanical ventilation. Unlike natural mechanical ventilation allows
pre-treatment of air supply air (cleaning, moisturizing, heating or cooling) and purification from dust, gases and other impurities of the removed air before emissions to the atmosphere. From other advantages of mechanical ventilation should be noted such as uniform work round year in the required volumes, regardless of the external weather-lifting conditions, as well as the possibility of supplying air to any point of the working room and removal of air from any point; If necessary, the magnitude of air exchanges can be changed in significant limits.
In the fight against production harm, the leading place occupies metering and I am in the same time. It is designed to capture and remove contaminated air directly from the places of education or the exit of harmful discharge. Efficiency of local action
exhaust ventilation It depends on the rational choice and the structure of the design of the air collector of the local suction, the degree of shelter and the adequacy of the discharge created by the installation, and other conditions. Elements exhaust installation are a suction (air speaker), through which the air is removed from the room, air ducts; fan; Equipment for air purification from dust and gases; A device for air emissions - exhaust mine.
The electrical wiring is a combination of insulated wires and cables with elements of their fastening, protective and supporting structures.
Wiring provides electricity supply to consumer electrical applicants. When designing electrical wiring, you should be guided by the operating "rules of the electrical installation device" (PUE), "technological design standards of electrical installations" and "building norms" (SNiP).
The inner is electrical wiring, laid indoors.
The external is called the wiring, laid through the outer walls of buildings and structures, under sheds, etc., as well as between buildings on supports (no more than four spans for 25 m long) outside the streets and roads.
Open electrical wiring includes wiring laid over the surface of the walls, ceilings, on supports, farms and other building elements of buildings and structures. Wires and cables are paved directly on the surface of the walls, ceilings, on rollers, insulators, on cables, on brackets, pipes, in flexible metal sleeves or directly gluing to the surface.
Open wiring can be stationary, mobile and portable. Open electrical wiring includes wiring deployed inside the structural elements of buildings and structures (in walls, floors, floors), as well as in the stunned furrows, without a furrow under the layer of wet plaster, in closed channels and voids building structures etc.
Wires and cables are laid either in pipes, flexible metal sleeves, boxes, or without them.
Hidden wiring fully protects wires and cables from mechanical damage and exposure to the external environment.
Hidden wiring can be replaced and disabled.
Rechangeable is called such a wiring that allows during operation to replace wires without destruction of building structures. In this case, the wires are packed in pipes or channels of building structures.
Implaced wiring cannot be dismantled without the destruction of structures or plaster.
In various climatic zones of the country in the construction of garden houses, cottages and cottages apply a variety of construction Materials and design. All the erected buildings are divided into three categories:
In accordance with the requirements " Construction norms and rules "All building materials and structures are divided into three groups: combustible, challenged and non-aggravated.
"The rules of the device of electrical installations" (PUE) adopted as follows under environmental conditions:
In order to save deficient wires with copper conductors, wires and cables are used for electrical wiring, mainly with aluminum veins.
Copper wires and cables are placed only in cases specified by the "rules of the device and operating electrical installations", for example, in fire and explosive rooms, in buildings with combustible overlaps.
Laying wires and cables with aluminum cores in principle does not differ from the laying of wires and cables with copper cores, but is carried out with greater caution, in order to avoid damage, it lives due to their smaller mechanical strength compared to copper. Working S. aluminum wiresOne should not allow multiple beggars in the same place, cuts lived at stripping isolation.
The wire is called one uninsulated either one or more insulated metal conductive core, on top of which, depending on the laying and operation conditions, there may be a non-metallic shell, winding or braid with fibrous materials.
Wires can be bare and isolated.
Nasoles are called wires that have no protective or insulating coatings on top of the conductive lives. Bare wires of brands of PSO, PS, A, AU, etc. Apply, as a rule, for air lines Power transmission.
Isolated changes are called wires that have conductive veins are insulated, and over the insulation there is a cotton yarn braid or a shell of rubber, plastics or metal tape. Isolated wires are divided into protected and unprotected.
Protected is isolated insulated wires having over electrical insulation shell, intended for sealing and protection against external climatic influences. These include the wires of the brands of Apr., PRVD, APP, etc.
Unprotected called insulated wires that do not have over electrical insulation of the protective shell (Wire of stamps AprTE, PRD, APR, ADPV, PPV, etc.)
The cord is called a wire consisting of two and more isolated flexible or particularly flexible living with a cross section of up to 1.5 mm², twisted or laid parallel coated with a protective insulating sheath.
The cable is called one or more twisted together isolated livers enclosed in a common rubber, plastic, metal shell (NVG, kg, AVVG, etc.).
For electrical wiring of power and lighting networks performed inside gardening houses and cottages, as well as on the territory of garden sites, isolated installation wires are used and an unsoneble power cables with rubber or plastic insulation in a metal, rubber or plastic shell with a segment of phase veins up to 16 mm².
Conducting veins of installation wires have standard sections in mm: 0.35; 0.5; 0.75; 1.0; 1.5; 2.5; 4.0; 6.0; 10.0; 16.0, etc. The cross section of the wire is calculated by the following formula:
S \u003d? D 2: 4
where S is the cross section of the wire, mm²;
p - a number equal to 3.14;
D - wire diameter, mm.
The diameter of the current-carrying vein (without insulation) is measured by a caliper or micrometer. The cross-section of the veins of multi-breed wires is determined by the amount of sections of all wires included in the core.
The insulation of the installation wires is designed for a specific operating voltage. Therefore, when choosing a brand of wires, it should be borne in mind that the operating voltage on which the wire isolation is calculated must be greater than the supply voltage electrical network. The network voltage is standardized: - 380 V, phase - 220 V, and the mounting wires are available on the rated voltage of 380 V and above, therefore, as a rule, they are suitable for the electrical wiring device.
Installation wires must match the plug-in. For the same brand and the same cross section of the wire, various loads are allowed, which depend on the laying conditions. For example, wires or cables laid openly are better cooled than laid in pipes or hidden under stucco. The wires with rubber insulation are allowed a long heating temperature of them, not exceeding 65 ° C, and the wires with plastic insulation - 70 ° C.
The conductive vein section is chosen on the basis of the marginal allowable heating of the vein, at which the insulation of the wires is not damaged.
What is the industry in material production, which ensures the creation and reconstruction of objects of industrial, communal, social and cultural and housing and housing?
Name what is carried out within the Unified Sectoral System, taking into account the national interests, interests of the regions and local governmentsWhat is associated with the delimitation of state ownership (on the national and local) and consolidate the objects of the construction complex and housing and communal services for the local self-government bodies?
What makes it possible to develop other sectors of the economy, socio-cultural sphere, a wide variety of public and individual needs in relevant products, acts as the most important guarantor of the national security of society and the state?
Name what they understand under the historically established household of the whole country or a combination of industries and types of material production and non-production sphere, or a set of economic relations that develop in the production system, sharing, distribution and consumption of goods?
Topic 23. Administrative law and economy management.
Name who carry out inter-sectoral management?
a) the Ministry of Culture;
b) the Ministry of Education;
c) Ministry of Economy;
d) Ministry of Health;
a) national economy;
b) agriculture;
c) industry;
d) trade;
2. Continue the offer. In the national economy, industry is allocated. To which refers ...:
a) culture;
b) housing and communal services;
c) education;
d) customs control;
3. Continue the offer. The basis of the economy economic System Republic of Belarus is ...:
a) education;
b) trade;
c) property;
d) finances;
4. Continue the offer. Economic Management issues are manageable ...:
a) committees of the economy; energy, fuel and communications of regional executive committers;
b) Health Departments of the District Executives;
c) health care departments of local regions in Minsk;
d) the Finance Committee;
a) agriculture;
b) industry;
c) finance;
d) trade;
a) industry;
b) management of construction and housing and communal services;
c) Communication Management;
d) agriculture;
a) trade;
b) economy;
c) construction;
d) industry;
8. Name what area covers the management of the housing foundation and utility facilities, their content, construction and repair?
a) industrial;
b) agricultural;
c) construction;
d) housing;
a) Housing Fund;
b) construction fund;
c) industry;
d) communications;
10. Name the republican government bodies in the field of housing and communal services and construction:
a) Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
b) the Ministry of Housing and Communal Services of the Republic of Belarus and the Ministry of Architecture and Construction of the Republic of Belarus;
c) Ministry of Finance and Ministry agriculture and food;
d) Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Health;
What is the combination of irregularities of the earth's surface?
In fact, such a totality is called relief. Moreover, the relief may be the most different. If you take the entire surface of the earth, like planets, then on the example of the globe it is easy to make sure that it is a ball, or rather geoid is the form of our planet. If it is descended down, the mountains and the sea, depressions and elevations, canyons, hills, fields, all irregularities, which, in aggregate, will be seen. The relief can be flat with a small amount of irregularities, mountain, with large drops of irregularities in height, and hilly, when the height difference on the ground is not more than half a kilometer.
On my unprofessional look, is a relief. And then I am not quite sure, because the relief most likely contains just the whole spectrum and evenness and including irregularities. I would hope that my first answer is still faithful.
