The Middle Ages are considered the most brutal era in the history of mankind, when even for the slightest offenses a person could be subjected to cruel torture. The instruments of torture of that time were so sophisticated that the cruelty of their inventors is simply amazing. Next, we offer you to get acquainted with the 13 most terrible instruments of torture.
"Pear of Suffering"
An instrument of torture for homosexuals and not only. This cruel tool has been used to punish women who have aborted, liars and homosexuals. The device was inserted into the vagina for women or the anus for men. When the executioner twisted the screw, the "petals" opened, tearing the flesh and bringing unbearable torment to the victims. Many then died from blood poisoning.
Rack
Dyba is the most famous weapon of medieval torture. TO wooden frame they tied the victim by the arms and legs and stretched the limbs in opposite directions. At first, the cartilaginous tissue was torn, and then the limbs were pulled out. A little later, spikes were attached to the frame, which dug into the victim's back. To intensify the pain, the thorns were smeared with salt.
"Catherine's wheel"
Before tying the victim to the wheel, her limbs were broken. When rotating, the legs and arms were finally broken, bringing unbearable torment to the victim. Some died from painful shock, while others suffered for several days.
Trumpet - "crocodile"
Medieval instrument of torture. The victim's legs or face (sometimes both) were placed inside this pipe, thereby immobilizing it. The executioner gradually heated the iron, forcing people to confess to anything.
The copper bull in which the victim was placed.
The victim was placed in a copper statue of a bull, under which a fire was made. The man was dying of burns and suffocation. During the torture, the screams coming from within were like the bellowing of a bull.
The Spanish donkey is a cruel instrument of torture.
A wooden log in the form of a triangle was fixed on the "legs". The naked victim was placed on top at a sharp angle that cut right into the crotch. To make the torture more unbearable, weights were tied to the legs.
Torture coffin
Iron torture cage. The victims were placed in metal cages, which completely immobilized them. If the torture coffins were too large for people, this gave them additional torment. This death was long and painful. The birds pecked at the flesh of their victims, and the crowd threw stones at them.
Head crusher
A medieval torture device for crushing the head.
The unfortunate man's head was clamped under this "cap". The executioner slowly tightened the screws, and the top of the "grinder" pressed on the skull. The jaw was the first to break, the teeth fell out. After that, the eyes were squeezed out, and finally, the skull broke.
The instrument of torture "cat's paw".
The "cat's paw" was used to tear flesh to the bone.
Knee grinder
Knee crushing device. This instrument of torture was especially popular during the Inquisition. The victim's knee was placed between the teeth. As the executioner tightened the screws, the prongs dug into the flesh and then crush the knee joint. After such torture, it was no longer possible to stand up.
"Cradle of Judas"
One of the most brutal tortures was called the Cradle of Judas or the Chair of Judas. The victim was forcibly lowered onto an iron pyramid. The tip fell directly into the anus or vagina. The resulting breaks after a while led to death.
Chest "claws"
This instrument of torture was used against women who were accused of adultery. The claws were heated and then thrust into the victim's chest. If a woman did not die, then for the rest of her life she remained with terrible scars.
"Abusive bridle"
This peculiar iron mask was used to punish grumpy women. Inside it there could be thorns, and in the hole for the mouth there was a plate that was superimposed on the tongue so that the victim could not speak. Usually the woman was escorted through noisy squares. The bell attached to the mask attracted everyone's attention, prompting the crowd to laugh at the one being punished.
The corners of a felling or a cut are called joining of logs, which provides the frame with rigidity, strength and heat-shielding qualities. Exists different kinds log corners. Let's consider each type of log corner in detail.
Many types of joints can be divided into two types - an angle with a remainder and an angle without a remainder.
Another name for the corner without a remainder is cutting into the paw. With this method, the ends of the logs are cut in the form of locks, while the ends of the logs are within the framework of the frame. Cutting into the paw looks very neat, aesthetically pleasing, and has been known since antiquity. The disadvantages of this method, according to experts, outweigh the advantages. First, due to the very small distance from inner corner premises to the ends of the logs on the street, the thermal protection of the log house in the corners is significantly weakened. In addition, wood is anisotropic; along the grain, the heat capacity of wood is approximately twice that in the transverse direction.
The corner turns out to be cold and blown out, and from the street it needs to be additionally insulated. Another drawback is that this method gives the log house less stability in general than the method of felling with the remainder, and connection with dowels is mandatory here.
In this case, the logs extend beyond the corners of the frame by 200 - 300 mm. This method of felling gives a warm corner, is not blown out and is considered more practical despite the higher consumption of logs - about 10%. The labor intensity of felling with the remainder is less, and there are no costs for additional insulation.
The simplest and most commonly used methods of cutting a corner with a remainder
The method is the most difficult and takes time to fit so that it is not blown by the wind. It is more practical to use it for laying the cap. The grooves cut in the lower logs correspond in size to the recesses in the upper ones, and all four logs in the crown are located horizontally, in the same plane.
It is considered the most common type of felling, simple and providing good thermal protection of the corner.
It looks like a corner in a bowl, but a longitudinal ledge is left in the lower part of the bowl, and a recess is made in the upper log, respectively.
All logs of a log house must have longitudinal grooves corresponding to the ridges of the bottom of the logs that will be stacked from above. These grooves are needed to retain heat in the log house, and so that the log house is not blown by the winds. According to GOST, the longitudinal grooves must have a width not less than 0.5 of the diameter of the log.
The choice of the width of the longitudinal groove depends on the minimum air temperatures and is assigned:
The shape of the groove in the form of a triangle is easy to manufacture, but does not give a tight and durable joint. It is almost impossible to fill a triangular cavity with tow or jute tightly, and during operation, condensate collects there, companies of insects, mold and fungus start up. Open capillaries of the tree take water from the insulation when it is sealed. Due to excess moisture, the logs have low resistance to decay. Thermal protection of such a log house is unimportant. Another disadvantage is constructive. The greatest load on the log falls just at the apex of the groove triangle, at the point where the section weakening, the groove can crack and open, and gaps will appear along the inter-crown joints.
The only plus of the "triangle cut" is speed. It is suitable only for log cabins that will not be heated, for various warehouses and outbuildings. For a residential blockhouse, such a longitudinal groove is not suitable, it is considered rough and cold.
The better the groove follows the shape of the ridge of the log laid in the bottom row, the more difficult it is to fit, and the warmer and denser it is.
The classic log seals are linen tow and moss. Modern ones - jute, tow and ... sphagnum moss. Yes, moss is still used today, it has not gone into hoary antiquity and has not become a relic of the past, used from poverty. Sphagnum - natural material with unique properties. They say about him that he heals both the owners and the house. And also - that the log cabins rot earlier than the moss between their crowns.
Sphagnum, or peat moss, is a common plant that grows in swamps. Peat and peat bogs are formed from it. After the moss dries, it becomes light, hence another name - white moss. Another name is medical moss, because it was used for dressings.
As building material moss is distinguished as an environmentally friendly and durable material. The log house, for which sphagnum was used to seal, acquires healing properties... Moss has antiseptic and bactericidal properties, and its hygroscopicity and breathability smooths out the difference in air humidity.
All heaters based on tow and jute fiber, unlike sphagnum, need to be impregnated with an antiseptic.
Sphagnum harvesting is carried out in all months, except for winter. Optimally - in the last month of summer, since the length of the moss is already sufficient, about 20 cm, and at this time it is the cleanest of all, without fallen leaves. Collecting moss is easy as it is a shallow plant without a root system.
After collecting, the moss is squeezed out, removing excess moisture, cleaned of forest debris and collected in bags. Before laying in the walls, the moss is dried for several days under a canopy.
If the moss needs to be prepared for future use, then drying is necessary. This is not difficult, the moss is laid out in a thin layer, about 20 cm in a place protected from the wind, and turned over during the drying process. It takes about a week to dry, and it doesn't matter if it is in the sun or in the shade, the moss dries everywhere. Dry moss can be stored in bags without problems for a long time.
After the logs of the crowns are finally fitted, they begin to lay the inter-crown insulation. Moss is laid out across the logs with a layer thickness of 15-20 mm, pressing slightly, but not ramming. The moss is spread on a width greater than the width of the longitudinal groove of the upper logs, by 100 mm. Moss is placed in the bowl and around the bowl in the same layer, with a protrusion of 50 mm beyond the bowl contour.
Traditional and correct technology- This is the laying of a log house "on the moss". Or on tow, in the case of using tow. But the assembly of log cabins without inter-row seals, on hastily, and then plugging between the crowns of the seal is not a technology. Such log cabins do not live long, beetles and a company settle in the cavities between the logs, fungus and mold grow. This is because it is simply impossible to hammer the sealant into the finished frame from the outside, there are always cavities. The sealants used in the external seams save the situation for a short time. In a short time, such log cabins become cold.
After laying the sealant on the log, place the log of the upper crown on top, with care so as not to move the moss. The laid logs are tapped with a wooden "woman".
After laying the logs, caulking the bowls is made, tucking the protruding fibers between the log and the bowl. The tool for this operation is called caulk, and the caulk is tapped with a mallet or hammer.
Dry moss is laid in the crowns, and the blockhouse is caulked moistened. If the moss is dried and then soaked, its strength is much greater than that of fresh moss.
The blockhouse is caulked in two passes. First, immediately after assembly, clogging the gaps between the crowns with a sealant as tightly as possible. Caulk until the moss begins to spring under the blows of the mallet on the caulk.
The crowns run along the entire contour, first from the outside, and then from the inside. This work is not considered difficult, rather long and monotonous. The crowns are caulked from bottom to top, in turn. Incorrect caulking can cause log skewing.
The second call is made after the log shrinkage, which takes about a year. The second caulk is done in the same way as the first.
Glossary of terms for house carving
The decor was made mainly from pine, sometimes from spruce, that is, from the so-called "red forest", trees conifers, felled (as opposed to deciduous) in the spring during the beginning of sap flow. At the same time, the resinous juices that appeared under the bark stained the tree trunk in a reddish-orange color (hence the name). The resinousness of conifers contributed to the preservation of the decor made from them. The painting and the good, non-leaking roof, under which it was located, also extended the life of the decor.
In Tula, aspen was also used for decoration, as well as for the roof, which, in terms of its water-repellent properties, was also a good material for these purposes.
Of all types of house carving, the most widespread in Tula was through (slotted) and especially sawn-through with its variety - "overhead", when the pattern is not placed in the light, but is superimposed on some other base. To a lesser extent, there is "three-dimensional carving", which replaced the "blind" and is a decoration made not on a whole tree, but made up of separate pieces-parts.
In the technique of sawing-overlapping thread, patterns of platbands, valances, friezes, pilasters and blades, inter-window inserts are made. Through-thread is mostly used in valances, small details of platbands, decorative roof overhangs ("towels"), brackets, etc.
About architectural wooden houses in more detail:
Platband
Decorative framing for window or doorway... The window casing usually consists of a pediment, a sandrik (kokoshnik), two vertical rods (sidewalls) and a window sill (apron). In wooden architecture, the platband closes the gap between the wall and the window frame. Previously, wooden platbands were decorated with carving. Carved platbands are an important element that gives the house its individual character. The term "platband" is used mainly in relation to Russian architecture of the 15th-17th centuries.
In the Urals, platbands were called "cut a", And in the Vologda region" in s rezi ". So they were also called in the Olonets province "l and chniki ", and in the Novgorod region -" O nniki "or" cash out and chka ". In the Moscow region, the platband is "ol O side ", in Arkhangelskaya -" obn O ska ", in Karelia -" sub O rnik ", in Perm -" okl a dka ", in Pskov -" obs a dka "and" obl and py ", in the region of Donetsk -" oblichk O vka "and" window cover ", in the Tver region -" cash and tire ", in the Vyatka province -" stutterer O nok ", or" zabok O knock ".
In Russia, woodcarving - a carving business - has existed since ancient times. The drawing was called "a sign", the words were also used: vorochee, ornamental.
Baluster- a support for the railing, which performs not only the load-bearing, but also the enclosing function. They are carried out in the form of the same type of curly elements located at the same distance from each other. Allows you to give the railing of a staircase or balustrade an openwork look.
... The frontal board and fenders are the same as the dock.
Przhelina - from the word at the forehead, i.e. on the face. This is one or more boards decorated with carvings on the pediment, covering the ends of the under-roof slabs from moisture. Frontal board and wind board decorations.
The reason in the modern architectural and construction language is the cornice.
The board covering the transition of the wall logs to the boards of the hut pediment is usually always covered with rich carvings. The carvers took different plots. Along with the floral ornament with a complex interweaving of stems, leaves and rosette flowers, fantastic half-virgins, half-fish, lions, and birds were depicted. Fairy-tale characters migrated from the side boards of ships to the front boards of the huts.
Usually, the design of the frontal board was an element identical to the decorative motif of the classic frieze - the acanthus branch. The wood craftsman only transformed it, giving it great splendor. The basis of the ornament was made up of a wavy branch, as a rule, extending from the central figure. The branch was covered with lush, clawed leaves, with their processes forming a series of symmetrical roundings. TO late XIX century, the saturation of the decor has increased, the splendor of the leaves, which form the basis of the drawing, has increased.
The lower, hanging part of the berth is made like a towel (towel).
Ridge- in the old days, it is the butt part of an oglupnya above the facade of a house in the form of a carved horse's head. Nowadays - the upper horizontal edge of the joint of the roof slopes.
Oblong planks, often with contour carvings in the lower part, fixed to the roof like shingles and serving to cover the roof. Plowshares were usually made from aspen.
Whoopen (Shelom)- a log with a gutter, crowning the roof and covering the upper joint of the roof slopes.
Lace overhangs or a row of short vertical planks with blind, often through thread, bordering the roof overhangs in the form of solid lace. They are made under the mooring (under the cornice).
Towel- a carved board hanging vertically down on the pediment or on the sides of the platbands. Covers the seams of piers or other horizontal elements.
It is also known in the old Russian version "towel", which means a towel. In rituals, it acts as a gift, amulet, veil, decoration, a symbol of the holiday, has a symbolic and announcing function. The ritual functions and symbolism of the towel are in many ways similar to the linen (towel).
Shutters- wooden boards... Often carved. Closing windows at night or in the absence of the owners. Often found in the north, where the nights are white, that at night it was darker at home. Designed to retain heat and protect against penetration into the house from the outside. Locked more often from the inside. Together with platbands, they are one of the most important elements of home decor.
Slotted, sawed thread(end-to-end)
A thread in which background elements are completely removed. It is carried out on flat planks by sawing through them. This achieves the extraordinary lightness of the product and the delicacy.
P about 170 years ago appearedslotted thread(through, cut)and spread quickly... The reason for this was economic - forests were getting smaller, and timber was becoming more expensive. Slotted thread it was relatively easy to manufacture, creating the effect of airiness, play of light and shadow of conjugated and overlaid parts.
Before her, the carving was "shipborne", i.e. volumetric in the form of bas-reliefs. But the slotted thread is cheaper and done faster .
Male roof
In the ancient Russian wooden architecture, a roof in which the hew is folded not on inclined rafters, but on horizontal logs - lay down. The ends of these longitudinal slabs are cut into the transverse walls of the log house, or otherwise, males. To prevent the chaos from slipping, they are supported from below by a hollowed-out log-stream, resting on the "chicken". Thus, the slopes and "chickens" formed a lattice, on top of which the roof was laid. The top of the roof was covered with a triangle specially cut from a log - a shell. Such a roof was built without a single nail and was held very firmly.
Hen
Spruce beams, hewn with a rhizome, which is bent in the form of a hook (so-called cocora), supporting a watercourse (stream). The chicken is placed on the slopes of the roof. They are fixed in the slabs in various ways: in one case, shallow nests are made of the long upper ends of the chicken, corresponding to the size of the slabs on which the hens are held, in the other, the nests-grooves are cut in the slabs, where the hens are laid, but at the same time the slack is weakened, - this is possible in massive slugs.
Cocora
Drainage flume on cocoons. Drainage chute on cocoons Curved ends of chickens, where in wooden roof the watercourse is laid (drain, flow, jam). Cocora - butt part of the trunk coniferous tree cut down together with one of the rhizomes growing perpendicular to the trunk.
Log house
Wall construction wooden structure, assembled from horizontally laid logs. The structure of the walls of a wooden building, assembled from horizontally laid logs. At the corners, the logs were connected using cuts different ways... The most common: "in oblo" - with small releases, was widely used in many buildings; "In the paw" - no outlets, lisch was used in some parts of the building. Also, depending on the type of structures, other cuts were used, but they were less common. Log cabins could be different shapes... In living quarters, they were usually rectangular. The most common form of log cabins were five-walled - a rectangular log house, inside divided by a wall into two rooms, as well as six-walled - already divided by two perpendicular walls into 4 rooms. In public places, especially in churches, octagonal-shaped log cabins were often used.
Rafter roof
Two methods of making such roofs were widely used - with one pair of rafters in the middle and on the males at the edges, or with three pairs of rafters at the ends and in the center. With their lower ends, the rafters were cut into nests specially hollowed out in the upper logs of the log house. Between the rafters, they cut their legs. Vertical logs - "hens" could often be used in the construction. From above, the rafters were crosswise connected by boards. This method is still widely used in roof construction.
Frieze or a belt - a horizontal strip of ornament running along the edge of the house.
Layout of decorative elements
The Middle Ages is considered the period in history with the most ruthless attitude towards people. For the slightest offense, they were subjected to sophisticated torture. This review presents 13 instruments of torture that will make people confess to anything.
The Middle Ages and Renaissance are considered the periods in history with the most ruthless attitude towards people. For the slightest offense, they were subjected to sophisticated torture. This review presents 13 instruments of torture that will make people confess to anything.
This cruel tool has been used to punish women who have aborted, liars and homosexuals. The device was inserted into the vagina for women or the anus for men. When the executioner twisted the screw, the "petals" opened, tearing the flesh and bringing unbearable torment to the victims. Many then died from blood poisoning.
The victim was tied to a wooden frame by the arms and legs and the limbs were stretched in opposite directions. At first, the cartilaginous tissue was torn, and then the limbs were pulled out. A little later, spikes were attached to the frame, which dug into the victim's back. To intensify the pain, the thorns were smeared with salt.
Before tying the victim to the wheel, her limbs were broken. When rotating, the legs and arms were finally broken, bringing unbearable torment to the victim. Some died from painful shock, while others suffered for several days.
The victim's legs or face (sometimes both) were placed inside this pipe, thereby immobilizing it. The executioner gradually heated the iron, forcing people to confess to anything.
The victim was placed in a copper statue of a bull, under which a fire was made. The man was dying of burns and suffocation. During the torture, the screams coming from within were like the bellowing of a bull.
A wooden log in the form of a triangle was fixed on the "legs". The naked victim was placed on top at a sharp angle that cut right into the crotch. To make the torture more unbearable, weights were tied to the legs.
The victims were placed in metal cages, which completely immobilized them. If the torture coffins were too large for people, this gave them additional torment. This death was long and painful. The birds pecked at the flesh of their victims, and the crowd threw stones at them.
The unfortunate man's head was clamped under this "cap". The executioner slowly tightened the screws, and the top of the "grinder" pressed on the skull. The jaw was the first to break, the tooth fell out. After that, the eyes were squeezed out, and finally, the skull broke.
The "cat's paw" was used to tear flesh to the bone.
This instrument of torture was especially popular during the Inquisition. The victim's knee was placed between the teeth. As the executioner tightened the screws, the prongs dug into the flesh and then crush the knee joint. After such torture, it was no longer possible to get up but legs.
One of the most brutal tortures was called the Cradle of Judas or the Chair of Judas. The victim was forcibly lowered onto an iron pyramid. The tip fell directly into the anus or vagina. The resulting breaks after a while led to death.
This instrument of torture was used against women who were accused of adultery. The claws were heated and then thrust into the victim's chest. If a woman did not die, then for the rest of her life she remained with terrible scars.
This peculiar iron mask was used to punish grumpy women. Inside it there could be thorns, and in the hole for the mouth there was a plate that was superimposed on the tongue so that the victim could not speak. Usually the woman was escorted through noisy squares. The bell attached to the mask attracted everyone's attention, prompting the crowd to laugh at the one being punished.
