Peasant reform of 1861 and the flag development of Russia
At the beginning of the 50_x. XIX century Russia was presented to contemporaries powerful in the military_polyticality of power. Higher government officials were calculated on the alleged unlimited military_economic resources of the country. However, the deep crisis of the serf system had a destructive impact on the country's economy and its military potential. The defeat in the Crimean War found insolvency in the eyes of not only Nicholas I politics, but also the whole regime as a whole.
Meanwhile, the persuasion of the new Tsar Alexander II (in the throne from February 1855) did not foretell transformations: for a number of issues, Alexander was still a bombing conservative than his father. However, the course of things actually forced Alexander to hold reforms. After a year after the top, he said the famous phrase: "It is better to cancel the serfdom from above, rather than waiting for the time when it will begin to cancel from below."
In 1857, in the best traditions of the past reign, the next secret committee began to develop the liberation of 35% of the subjects of the empire from the slave state. However, many of the highest dignitaries and bureaucracy braked in every way this project. Then the nobles were invited to elect the committees for the provinces to discuss the conditions for the cancellation of the serfs of the peasants. Alexander transformed the Secret Committee to the Chief Province Committee, giving him a vowel character, and he began to consider the projects and suggestions of local nobility committees. Active participation in the development of peasant and other reforms accepted Brothers D.A. and N.A. Milyutina, Ya.I. Rostovtsev, S.S. Lanskaya and others. The Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich and the Grand Prince Elena Pavlovna played a major role in conducting liberal transformations, who had a strong influence on the emperor and the course of reforms.
Differences of economic conditions in the provinces were reflected in the projects of the nobles. The nobles of the non-sinnamine band received the main income in the form of cash flow from the peasants. The land in such provinces gave poor crops, and most of the peasants were engaged in trade and various crafts, from which the lifts were paid. Therefore, the nobility of the non-black-earth band was ready to free their peasants with large land plots, but with such a redemption so that he compensate for the loss of landowners with high occasions.
In the chernozem provinces, where the Earth gave rich crops and the barbecue was widespread, the landowners received the main income from the Earth. In these provinces, the nobility was ready to free their peasants even without redemption, but without land plots to preserve the main wealth - the land behind him.
Finally, there was a lot of land in the steppe strip, but it was relatively weakly-shaped. Here landowners sought to keep labor. Therefore, the nobility of the steppe band offered to establish after the cancellation of the serfdom long (10-12 years) transition period, during which the feudal subsidy of peasants would be preserved.
It should be borne in mind that a rather significant part of the landlords actually opposed the abolition of serfdom, and this also affected the final version of the peasant reform, which was the nature of the compromise between the government and landowners (we note that the liberation of slaves in the United States at the same time led to a long and a fierce civil war).
In the fall of 1860, the editorial commissions completed the preparation of a project on peasant reform, mainly reflecting the wishes of the nobility of various provinces. On February 19, 1861, Alexander signed "Provisions" and Manifesto on the release of peasants from serfdom. In the manifesto, the peasants immediately received personal freedom and a number of civil rights. They could enter into property and civil transactions, switch to other estates, open industrial and trading enterprises. In "Provisions", the conditions for the liberation of peasants in various provinces of Russia were developed in detail.
It should be borne in mind that the abolition of serfdom was not a one-time act of 1861. It was a process that stretched for decades. Within two years after the publication of the manifest (until 1863), the peasants were to remain on the position of "temporary-based" (see "Temporable peasants") and carry out the same duties, although in a somewhat limited form.
The law proceeded from the fact that all the earth, including the peasant nodes, belonged to the landowner. The peasants were considered only by users of this land. To become the owner of his put on, the peasant was supposed to buy him from the landlord. Moreover, the ending of the Earth was forced. Financial conditions for ransom were extremely heavy for peasants. The amount of ransom was income from feudal duties, and not the market price of land. Since the peasants did not have money for redemption, the state paid the landowner with 80% of the redemption amount immediately, and the rest of the sum of the peasants paid the landowner, as a rule, in installments. The redemption amount paid by the landowners by the state was then charged with the peasants in the treasury for 49 years (in 1905 this condition was abolished).
The dimensions of the peasant put on the natural and economic conditions of the provinces, and the entire territory of European Russia was divided into three bands: black earth, non-black and steppe. In the first two bands, the "highest" and "lowest" norms of peasant passengers were installed, in the steppe - "edited". The law provided for a segment from the peasant one in favor of the landowner, if it was put on exceeded the norm established in this area. Conversely, if the peasant navel did not reach the minimum norm, the law provided for the cluster of the Earth. In most cases, the practice of segments of the Earth from the peasant posts was operating. As a result, the landowners retained tremendous land owners, and the peasants were at their disposal put on ones, the size of which did not allow to continue to maintain the existence of a minimum. It should be noted that the reform did not affect the organization of the peasant society - the community, which retained its order of land use and a circular order.
Since the preparation for reform began, the peasants were patiently waiting for their will, hoping that they would receive a "complete will", that is, the landlords will immediately fall, they will receive their downtowns for free, and maybe the land of landowners. The stronger was the disappointment, the widespread displeasure of the peasants. In a number of provinces, the government applied power to pacify the peasants. The most famous and the most bloody case of this kind occurred in the village of the abyss of the Penza province, where the soldiers began to shoot the peasants. According to official, explicitly understated data, 55 people died.
Events in the abyss caused a sharp protest of democratic sectors of society. In Kazan, students led by Professor A.P. SHHAPE SHIEM SHOULD COMMODERSHIPS. Since 1861, anti-government proclamations began to appear. In the center of the procimation campaign stood by N.G. Chernyshevsky. In the summer and in the fall of 1861 in St. Petersburg and Moscow, three numbers of the illegal sheet "Velikoruss" were distributed. The authors of the leaflets criticized the peasant reform, demanded the introduction of the Constitution, the courts of jury, freedom of speech and press. Then the procamation "to the younger generation" appeared in St. Petersburg, written by N.V. Shelgunov and printed in London typography A.I. Herzen. Even earlier, in May 1861, a great impression on the contemporaries was made by the proclamation "Young Russia". Its author was a Moscow student P.G. Zichevnevsky. In the proclamation, he argued the inevitability of the "bloody and inexorable" revolution. The government responded repressions: In 1862, the magazines of the radical direction "Contemporary" and "Russian Word" were closed, N.G. arrested Chernyshevsky, N.A. SERNO_SOL'YEVICH, D.I. Pisarev.
Reforms 1860-1870.
Cancellation of serfdom caused a number of other socio-economic reforms. Zemskoy reform. From 1864, the European part of Russia introduced the Zemstvo - non-alone bodies of local self-government. The competence of the departments included local health, education, local communication, trade and industry. The political rights of the substrates were limited, they could contact the government only with the petitions, but did not possess the legislative initiative. In 1870, reorganization and urban self-government was subjected. Judicial reform. The most consistent and thoughtful was the reform of legal proceedings (1864). Dutinating reform introduced a non-uniform, open, vowel, competing process. An institution of jury meetings elected from representatives of all classes appeared. The preliminary investigation was selected from the police and was transferred to the special judicial investigators. Financial reform. Back in 1860, the State Bank was established, the state budget was ordered. The only manager of income and expenses was the Minister of Finance. There were publications for universal information of the income and state expenses. The system of spillings was canceled. In all provinces, the control chambers independent of the local authorities were established, which ensured the income and expenses of all provincial institutions. Military reforms (1864-1874). The defeat in the Crimean War showed the military_technic backwardness of Russia from leading European countries. The reorganization of the army largely depended on the level of industry and transport. Therefore, military reforms stretched for a long time. The main ideologist and organizer of reform was Military Minister D.A. Milyutin is a highly educated and progressive statesman. Under his leadership, a military management system was reorganized, a network of military_uisual institutions was expanded, the structure of the management of troops was changed. The central place in the reforms occupied a new system of recruiting army and fleet - replacement of recruitous sets of universal military service. The introduction of universal military service gave effect only when the reservoirs were quickly mobilizing. However, only the growth of railway construction in 60-70_e. XIX century allowed me to move in 1874 a new system of recruiting army. Military service spread to all the men's population that has reached 20_ years, without the difference in class. Facials who had benefits were exempted from the actual service (the only son, the only breadwinner in the family, etc. P.). Significantly reduced service life depending on the educational cencing. Thus, the full term of the deadlines in the army was 6 years, and for those who had higher education, and only six months.
Reforms were also carried out in the field of medium and higher education, press.
Reform value
Cancellation of serfdom and other reforms have significantly changed the social and economic entry of Russia. Reforming the country, its modernization led to the elimination of class septum. Gradually fell the economic and cultural significance of the landowner nobility, and at the same time increased the number and influence of representatives of secondary classes, which were called the differences. Only after the elimination of serfdom began the slow, but the steady transformation of Russia into the country with the modern capitalist industry. Of course, the reforms were contradictory, inconsistent, especially peasant. In all spheres of life, serfs were preserved. Autocracy as the basis of the political system has not changed. The incomplete nature of the reforms 60-70_x in many ways contributed to the revolutionary explosion at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Economic Development in Poreform Time
With the abolition of serfdom, large-scale engine production quickly begins to develop, new industries arise, new economic areas are developing. The process of stratification of the peasantry that began in the pre-formed period intensified after reforms. The number of two extreme groups of the peasantry - wealthy and the poorest grew. It created prerequisites for the development of the labor market in both industry and agriculture. Sleepy, who ruined the peasants were forced to sell their labor.
For the defective time, the two main forms of landowners are characterized - waste and capitalist. The first was the processing of landlord land with peasants for providing them with additional arable stuffs and other land; Second - hiring landlord workers. Already in 1880_e. The capitalist form of maintaining landlords began to prevail. For those landlord farms that failed to rebuild on capitalist paws, a painful process of decline and ruin began.
After the cancellation of serfdom, a significant part of the peasants began to be thickened, failing to adapt to new terms of the economy. They replenished the ranks of the rural and urban proletariat. At the same time, there was an increase in the number of rich peasants (fists), focusing in their hands the arable land of less successful fellow and broken landlords. Kulatsky farms, as well as landowners who rebuilt their farms on capitalist way, produced products mainly to the market.
The industrial coup in Russia began in 30-40_E. Hih in. And mainly ended in 80_E. It is from this time that the production of production means of production begins to prevail in the industry, while in the first defectory years, textile production and other industries have played a leading role.
In 70-80_e. XIX century There are new industries for Russia: coal, chemical, oil-producing, mechanical engineering. New Economic Centers (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Baltic States, Urals) add new ones: Donbass, Baku oil production, Ukraine. Kolomna, Sormovo, Kharkov, Odessa become large centers of mechanical engineering. Total production for 60-90_e. XIX century Grew 8 times. Especially rapidly developed the mining industry. The real boom experienced railway construction (in 1861 there were 1488 railways, in 1900 - 47,800).
Industrial development in the pureform period was uneven and looked cyclic. After lifting in the 60s, from the second half of 70_x. XIX century Starts recession. From the beginning of 90_x. And until the end of the century - a new, already more powerful lifting, which is associated with economic policy S.Yu. Witte.
The development of industry contributed to the formation of industrial proletariat and industrial bourgeoisie. There are permanent frames of workers who are broken forever from the village. The proportion of height proletarians is growing. The social base of the formation of industrial bourgeoisie served mainly merchants and wealthy peasantry. It is from the peasant environment that Russian entrepreneurs of the end of the 4th - beginning of the twentieth century V.: Morozov, Prokhorov, Gachkov, Ryabushinsky, Konovalov.
In general, in the blundering time, the economy of Russia retained clearly pronounced traits of multipleness: along with modern industries and commodity rural production there were considerable amount of handicraft production and patriarchal peasant farm.
Public movement in 60-80_E years
From the second half of 50_x. XIX century The political regime is significantly softened. It was at this time that the concepts of "thaw", "publicity" appear in Russian political lexicon. Alexander II liberal reforms contributed to the intensification of social_polytic movement. His representatives, understanding the shortcomings and the unfinished nature of reforms, advocated the further transformation in the country, the gradual peaceful evolution of the autocratic building in the legal constitutional state. K.D. Cavelin, A.M. Unkovsky, M.N. Ratops (then Liberal) and other liberal social figures quite sharply opposed the measures of the government, slowing down the course of reforms or leading to their folding. It is from the number of their supporters by the end of the XIX century. There was a wide Zemvsky_Dvoryan liberal movement, the opposition autocracy. Others, mostly representatives of the discharge intelligentsia, experiencing a sense of guilt for the imparalfish and the oppression of peasants, dissatisfied with the half and incomplete nature of reforms, confessing the exaggerated ideas that the people of reform were hostile, increasingly inclined to the left radicalism, the abandonment of some kind of compromises with the authorities .
In the mid-60_x. XIX century Among the student, a number of circles arise, promoting revolutionary ideas. One of the members of the Moscow mug of N.A. Ishutina - D.V. Karakozov switched from words to the case, having committed in 1866 the new attempt on Alexander II.
By this time, the leading revolutionary course is population. The foundations of the ideology of nationality were set forth in the works of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky in the middle of the century. To 70_m. Publicism has developed in solid teachings. The main provisions were as follows: the denial of the domination of capitalism in Russia (its development was considered as regressing); recognition of the identity of Russia, in particular its economic system; The peasant community was revered as a cell of the future socialist society; Preached an immediate socialist coup with a support for the peasant community.
The main spiritual leaders of people are becoming M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev. Bakunin, anarchism theorist, opposed all state power, believing that the state is "historically necessary evil" and the upcoming revolution should lead to the destruction of any forms of statehood. At the site of the state, a certain "great saving principle of federalism" should arise. Bakunin believed that the people are inherent in freedom instinct; It is necessary to go to the people, combine it - and then will happen the "nationwide riot", which will meet the royal regime.
Completely otherwise assessed the readiness of the people to the revolution P.L. Lavrov. He was convinced of the need to enlighten the people, prepare him to revolution. Consequently, the main task of the revolutionary intelligentsia was to painstaking the preparation of the people to the revolution.
PN Tkachev became an ideologist of conspiracy tactics. In his opinion, a sufficiently small group of revolutionaries to capture power to carry out the necessary socialist transformations. Like Bakunin, Tkachev believed that the Russian peasant is a communist on instinct, in his way of life, therefore, a revolutionary revolution will be fairly simple.
In the spring of 1874, various revolutionary circles are twin, the students of the left beliefs moved "into the people" (see "Walking to the People"). What_libo the single center movement was not. It was a gust, the desire of young people under the influence of illegal literature, the propaganda activities of revolutionary circles raise the peasants to the revolution. However, the peasantry in the overwhelming mass did not understand, the people were promoted by populi, so the peasants sometimes handed over young people to the police themselves. Due to the fact that the movement was absolutely not prepared, many populists were arrested, and by the fall "walking to the people" ended in complete failure.
The largest illegal organization of populists 70_x. XIX century "Earth and Volya", which arose in 1876 from the revolutionary circles of St. Petersburg. Its active members were A.D. Mikhailov. V.A. Osinsky, G.V. Plekhanov, N.A. Nathanson. Initially, the organization paid the focus of propaganda work among the peasants, the so-called sudden propaganda. But the peasants in the art were related to populists with distrust. Gradually, the main activity of "land and will" becomes "Disorganizative work" (terror) against the authorities. In January 1878 V.I. Zasulich, performing the act of revenge, shot in the St. Petersburg city team F.F. Trepova (he ordered to subjected to corporal punishment of a political prisoner). In August of the same year, S.M. Kravchinsky embalts Dagger Chief Gendarm N.V. Mezentseva. In 1879 A.K. Solovyov unsuccessfully shot at Alexander II. The attempted snack and especially the acquittal sentenced by her jury was supported by a wide public opinion. In general, terrorist acts did not receive direct support and approval in a large part of society, but did not cause a sharp protest and sympathy for the authorities.
In the "Earth and Will", some members sought to intensify terrorist activities (A.D. Mikhailov, N.A. Morozov), others (G.V. Plekhanov, M.R. Popov) considered the main continuation of the propaganda of work. In the organization, called split. In the summer of 1879 in the summer of two congresses (in Lipetsk and St. Petersburg), it was not possible to reach agreement, and the "earth and will" split into "black redistribution" and "People's Volay". The Folk Will Executive Committee soon focused on the preparation of the kingdom. After a number of unsuccessful attempts on the life of the king and the explosion in the Winter Palace, the people achieved their goal. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded. However, the revolutionary lift, as the terrorists expected, did not happen. By this time, the forces of the organization were undermined, most of its active participants were arrested. In 1884, "People's Volia" ceased to exist.
Working
The development of capitalism in Russia period took place in "wild" forms. There was no work legislation, the duration of the working day was not regulated, the safety technique was not observed, working conditions and life workers were at an extremely low level. The presence of a large reserve army of labor caused the cheapness of the labor force. Naturally, a serious financial situation, disgraceful, the arbitrariness of entrepreneurs forced workers to fight for improving their position.
The first working speeches belong to the 60_m. XIX century In 70_, the strike movement is enhanced. In 1872, one of the largest stackers of the decade took place. In Narva, there were about 6 thousand workers of the Crenholm Manufactory. It was possible to stop the strike only with the help of troops and a number of concessions workers. In 1885, there was a famous strike on the Nikolaev Manufactory near Nuthehov_Zueva, who became a story as a Morozovsky strike. It should be noted that the working speeches of the second half of the XIX century. We wore, as a rule, the spontaneous and fragmented character, they put forward mainly economic requirements.
In 1870_e. Working organizations arise, which, along with economic goals, set themselves and political. The first such organization was the "South-Russian Union of Workers" (1875). It was headed by E.O. Zaslavsky. Union existed for long, in December of the same year he was defeated by the police. In 1878, "Northern Union of Russian Workers" arises in St. Petersburg. This organization numbered about 200 people. Her leaders were V.P. Obnorsky and S.N. Halturin. "Northern Union" had a program and charter. He managed to illegally release the only issue of the "Working Dawn" newspaper. In 1878, after the arrest of managers, the organization broke up. The first working organizations were under the ideological influence of population.
Growth of the labor movement in 80_e. XIX century Forced the government to make the first steps in the design of work legislation. In 1885, the night work of adolescents and women was banned. The next year, a law is issued regulating fines on workers.
Opinions of historians
The central place in the pre-revolutionary historiography of the Board of Alexander II occupied reforms 60-70_x. XIX century For most historians, they were assessed positively, characterized as liberal and in historical literature were called "Great". The book was very popular. Jacshieva "The Epoch of Great Reforms", withstood 8 editions. CDFs wrote about different sides of reforms. Cavelin, V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.A. Kornilov, S.S. Tatishchev, B.N. Chicherin and many others. The most fundamental work in pre-revolutionary historiography dedicated directly to the peasant reform was the sixtime edition of the "Great Reform", in the writing of which democratically minded historians VB took part. Bonch_Bruyevich, S.P. Melgunov et al. Paying a lot of attention to various aspects of peasant and other reforms, pre-revolutionary researchers practically did not consider such an important question as the course of implementing reforms.
Soviet historiography characterized the transformation carried out in 60-70_, as a reaction to the deep crisis of the serf system, the growth of peasant performances and called the reforms "bourgeois". The "bourgeois" reforms by Soviet historians were considered as an important stage of transformation of feudal relations in capitalist. In the works of the Soviet period, a lot of attention was paid to the analysis of the socioeconomic position of Russia on the eve of the abolition of serfdom, halfness and incomplete reforms, the development of the concept of the "revolutionary situation" in 1859-1861; The attention was focused on the fact that reforms were held serfs. The largest Soviet researcher of the peasant reform was P.A. Zaison, which, based on a wide range of sources in the monographs "Canceling of serfdom" and "carrying out the peasant reform" significantly expanded the idea of \u200b\u200bthe preparation and implementation of peasant reform, introduced a new actual material into circulation.
Most modern historians consider the reform activity of the Government of Alexander II as a compromise in the context of awareness by the majority of the unprotection of the unprotection and danger of the following inside and the foreign policy rate.
Counter does 80_h gg. XIX century
Holding reforms 60_x. XIX century, the Government of Alexander II gradually begins to be inclined towards tightening the regime after the start of the Polish uprising and especially after 1866 (the first attempt on the king). A series of attempts at the end of 70_x. Forced the Government to act more resolutely. In 1880, the Supreme Regulatory Commission led by M.T. Loris_Melikov. He receives emergency powers in the fight against terrorism and at the same time takes a number of measures to conquer public opinion. The government, having consisted that the lack of attempts during almost only 1880 testifies to the termination of terror, at the end of the year the commission dissolved. Loris_Melikov managed to convince Alexander as needed to meet liberal circles. On the morning of March 1, 1881, the king signed the Loris_Melikov project on the involvement of representatives of the Zemstvo and urban self-government to discuss the projects of the necessary reforms (the so-called "Constitution of Loris_Melikov"), and after a few hours Alexander II was killed.
Having survived the panic of the first days after the ancebide, the new emperor Alexander III spends some time between the continuation of the liberal politics and turn towards the reaction. Under the influence of its mentor K.P. Victorious Tsar tsar leaned towards the second path. The so-called era of counterproforms began (see counter-processors in Russia), in counterweight reforms 60_x. The reaction policy of the government Alexander III has affected all parties to political and public life: administrative management, local government, press, higher and secondary education. The policy of aggressive nationalism has stepped up, primarily in the desire of the government to Russify national minorities.
The Government of Alexander III managed to stabilize the political situation in the country for a while, defeat the most active populic circles, and the rest of the political opposition to drive into a deep underground.
Opinions of historians
Most contemporaries who closely knew Alexander Alexandrovich, and pre-revolutionary historians, recognizing the small mental abilities of the king, noted the presence of common sense and a sense of responsibility for Russia, but at the same time some excessiveness and rigidity of his internal political course. In Soviet historiography, the Board of Alexander III was considered as the time of the darkest reaction itself, the suppression of all freightness, and the king himself - as a stupid and limited "Dervortord". Modern historians explain the politics of the Government of Alexander III in the fact that, having started reforms, the autocracy did not cope with their consequences, as well as fear before the certain concessions submitted in the end will lead to the collapse of the autocracy (last, however, applies to Alexander II policies ). But in today's historical literature, you can meet direct apologetics of the activities of Alexander III.
The spread of Marxism in Russia. I Congress RSDDRP
After the split of the National Organization "Earth and Volia", one of its leaders, G.V. Plekhanov, headed the black redel group. In 1880, Plekhanov was forced to emigrate. Having become acquainted with the works of K. Marx, very popular then in Europe, he became an active promoter of his teachings. In 1883, Plekhanov with a group of like-minded people created the Marxist Organization "Liberation" in Geneva. The group saw his tasks in spreading the teachings of Marx in Russia and the conduct of ideological struggle with natural cultivation, making a bet on the formative proletariat, which she considered the revolutionary class.
With the development of capitalism, the growth of the labor movement and disappointment in natural cultivation in Russia in 80_e. XIX century The first Social_Temocratic groups standing at Marxist positions arise. In one of these groups in Kazan began its revolutionary activities V.I. Lenin. In 1895, in St. Petersburg, he with a group of comrades from broken circles created the "Union of the struggle for the liberation of the working class". In their activities, the Union tried to move from the propaganda of Marxism to agitation in the working masses. He managed to establish links with the working series of St. Petersburg enterprises. However, in December 1895, Lenin and other Union leaders were arrested, and the organization actually ceased to exist.
In 1898, Social_Temocratic groups of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Ekaterinoslav gathered in Minsk and decided to create the Russian Social Remocratic Workers Party (RSDLP). Proclaiming the creation of a party, the congress, however, did not work out its program and the charter, failed to overcome disagreements between individual groups. Thus, the question of the creation of the Social Remocratic Party in Russia remained open.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
After defeat in the Crimean War, foreign policy developed in two main areas: Promotion to Asia and restoring positions in Europe (the struggle for the abolition of the humiliating conditions of the Parisian civil contract). The Minister of Foreign Affairs under Alexander II was one of the best diplomats of A.M. Gorchakov. In many ways, due to its efforts, it was possible to eliminate the articles of the Paris Agreement unprofitable for Russia (1871). These events were associated with the rapprochement of Russia with Prussia and the defeat of France in the Franco_PR. In 1873, Russia entered into an alliance with Germany and Austro_Vengrie (Union of Three Emperors), which determined the European policy of Russia in 70_E. XIX century
In 1864, the long-term Caucasian war ended, in early 60_x the movement of Russia continued to the depths of Central Asia (the accession of Kazakhstan, Central Asian Khanate), which led to the collision of the interests of Russia and England in this region.
From the middle of 70_x. The eastern question is sharpened again. This was due to the fact that Russia supported the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples for independence, as well as the collision of the interests of a number of European countries in this region. The brutal suppression of the Turks of the uprising in Serbia and the own interests of Russia in the Balkans led to the fact that in April 1877 Russia announced the war of Turkey. The war for Russia was unexpectedly severe, but ultimately Turkey was defeated. In the town of San_Stefano (1878), a peace treaty was prisoner for Russia and the Balkan peoples. However, this caused opposition from England and Austro_engria, insisted at the revision of the Conditions of the Susta Head World, which happened in the same year on the Berlin Congress. According to his results, the territory of Bulgaria was reduced threefold, Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England, apparently, the Sultan is the island of Cyprus for the support of Turkey. The unsuccessful peace treaty hit the patriotic senses of Russian society.
The treacherous position of Austro_Vengriya during the Russian_Tures of the War and the lack of support from Germany at Congress in Berlin (already under Alexandra III) led to the collapse of the Union of Three Emperors. After that, the rapprochement of Russia with France began, which served as decoration in 1891-1892. Military_polytic Union.
Personalia
Alexander II (1818-1881) - joined the Russian throne. On February 19, 1855, he entered the history of Russia under the name "Tsar_Svoboditel". She concluded to the thoughts about the need for change in Russia, understood the importance of concessions, a compromise in the transformation of a political and state device. After the advantage of the throne of Alexander II, the following progressive measures were carried out: free departure abroad was allowed, the Decembrists and Petrashevtsy were amnestied, the censorship was removed on publications, other liberal events were held. With great seriousness, the emperor was treated and the problem of canceling serfdom. The government was forced to make reforms in Russia because of the growth of social instability, the activity of the lower and radical public figures. Under Alexandra II, the Caucasian War was completed (1864). Turkestan entered Russia, the borders of Russia and China on Amuru were enshrined. In 1877-1878. He led the war with Turkey, continuing his father's attempt to solve an oriental question. Foreign policy focused on Germany. In 1873, he concluded the Union of Three Emperors with Germany and Austria. In the context of enhancing the revolutionary terror, the Supreme Regulatory Commission created in 1880. In the last years of life, leading positions in the government took MT. Loris_Melikov, who offered the king to continue reforms. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded in St. Petersburg People.
Reforms: peasant, Zemskaya, city, judicial, in the army, in print and educational institutions - were called "Great". They led the social_polytic structure of Russia in line with the needs of the second half of the XIX century. The first step was made on the way of forming a legal state and civil society. Russia has reached a new, capitalist development path.
Alexander III (1845-1894) - joined the throne in 1881 after the death of his father Alexander II. It was the ideal of the Patriarchal Board, the unity of the emperor with the people, maintaining sustainable classes in the society and national_samative development. A convinced supporter of the country's peaceful development. The first measures taken by the new government continued the former reforming course; The obligatory redemption of the Earth was introduced, redemptions were reduced, the plans of the convocation of the Zemstvo Cathedral (1882) were developed, the peasant bank was established, the pillow was abolished (1882), the benefits of the Old Believers (1883) were abolished. At the same time, the government defeated the "folk will".
With the coming to the leadership in the Government of D.A. Tolstoy (1882) There was a change in the domestic political course, which was based on the ideas of "inviolability of autocracy": the control of the seal was strengthened, the nobility was provided with special rights in obtaining higher education, its socio-economic rights were defended, measures to conservate the peasant community were defended. At the same time, reform attempts in the economy were continued. Nevertheless, in the sphere of culture, a course was taken to "National identity", the persecution of religious dissent, etc. increased, and so on.
In the field of foreign policy, Russia under Alexander III did not led large wars (for which he was called "king_mithometer"), but all_taki significantly expanded its borders in Central Asia. In European politics, Alexander III initially continued the orientation of his grandfather and father to the Union with Germany and Austria (the development of ideas and the principles of the Union of Three Emperors), and in 1893 he concluded an alliance with France.
Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich (1814-1876) is a public figure, anarchism theorist and revolutionary population. Member of the revolution 1848-1849 (Paris, Dresden, Prague), was arrested and issued to the Russian authorities. Was in conclusion in the Siberian reference (1851-1861). Fight abroad. After the escape, I worked in the first intermenimal, I was an enemy of Marx. In 1872, excluded from the International.
Gorchakov Alexander Mikhailovich (1798-1883) - Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1856-1882, State Chancellor, a brilliant prince. One of the largest diplomats of the XIX century, represented Russia at the Vienna Conference (1855), where in the conditions of military defeat of Russia in the Crimean War made a bet on the collapse of Anglo_Franzuz alliance. After the Paris Congress was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, managed to ruin the unified anti-Russian coalition of European powers. The result of this course was the refusal of the articles of the Paris world unprofitable Russia immediately after the overthrow of Napoleon III. Gorchakov always opposed revolutionary shocks (Revolution of 1848 in France, Paris Commune, etc.). After the creation of the German Empire became more cautious in relations with her. Played a significant role in the conclusion in 1873 the Union of Three Emperors, provided the Russian-Tyrical War diplomatic training (1877-1878). In 1875, the diplomatic position of Gorchakov won France from the new aggression of Germany. During the Russian_tures of the war (1877-1878), he took a fluctuating position, believing that Russia is not yet ready to seize Constantinople and the war can only lead to the exacerbation of international relations. This position largely determined the fall in the popularity of Gorchakov. In 1882, he was forced to resign.
Zhelyabov Andrei Ivanovich (1851-1881) - the revolutionary_n. One of the creators and managers of the Folk Free organization (1879). The organizer of the attempts on the emperor Alexander II. KazNen on April 3, 1881 in St. Petersburg, on the process of "First Armenian".
Zaslavsky Evgeny Osipovich (1844/45-1878) -Organizer and the head of the "South-Russian Union of Workers" in Odessa. Promotional socialist ideas among workers. He was arrested and sentenced to 10 years cavities.
Zasulich Vera Ivanovna (1849-1919) is a public figure, revolutionary_nign. In 1878 he was attempted to the life of the St. Petersburg Grador F. F. F. Trepova. He was the organizer and participant of the Black Redelon Group. In 1883, he moved to the position of Marxism. One of the founders of the Labor Liberation group. Since 1903 - Menshevka.
Lavrov Petr Lavrovich (1823-1900) is a public figure, an ideologist of revolutionary population, the so-called propaganda direction. Since 1870 - in emigration.
LANSKAY SERGEY STEPANOVICH (1787-1862) - a state leader, a short time was a member of the "Union of Benencies", Minister of Internal Affairs (1855-1861), one of the leaders of the preparation of peasant reform.
Lenin (Ulyanov) Vladimir Ilyich (1870-1924) - a politician. Brother of the disgusting A.I. Ulyanov executed for the attempt on Alexander III in 1887 for participation in student unrest in 1887, excluded from the first year of Kazan University. In 1891, he passed the exams for the course of the Law Faculty at St. Petersburg University; Assistant jury attorney in Samara. In late 1880 - early 1890_x. - Member of the People's Circles, then Marxist. In 1895, he participated in the creation of the St. Petersburg "Union of the struggle for the liberation of the working class", arrested. In 1897, Soslasssky Yenisei province was exiled for three years in the village of Shushensky. In 1900 went abroad. Together with G.V. Plekhanov began the publication of the newspaper "Spark". At the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903) he headed the Bolshevik fraction. For many years, conducted in emigration, engaged in professional revolutionary activities. Created a batch of "new type" aimed at the preparation and conduct of the socialist revolution in Russia. In April 1917, having arrived in Petrograd, in the "April theses" proclaimed the course for the socialist revolution. After the July crisis of 1917 on an illegal position. Headed the leadership of the Oktyabrsky uprising in Petrograd. At the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the Chairman of the Council of the Council of Work and Peasant Defense was elected Chairman of the Council of Work and Peasant Defense at the same time (since 1919 - the Council of Labor and Defense), a member of the VTCI and the USSR CIQ. Played a decisive role in the conclusion of the Brest world. He conducted a policy of red terror, "military communism", the initiator of the elimination of opposition parties and their press bodies (which led to the emergence of a one-party system), expulsion from the country of prominent representatives of the intelligentsia, not agreeing with the policies of the Bolsheviks, repression against "socially alien elements" ( nobility, clergy, etc.). In 1922, he was seriously ill, since December did not participate in political activities.
Lenin stood on the positions of radical Marxism, believing that, despite the immaturity of capitalist relations, Russia is ready to move along the path of socialist construction, and tried to realize these ideas in practice. He was an active party journalist, wrote a huge number of books and articles on the strategy and tactics of the Bolshevik Party.
Loris_Melikov Mikhail Tarielovich (1825-1888) - State Affairs, General_adjutant, participant in Russian_Turer Wars (1853-1856 and 1877-1878). Since 1880, the Minister of Internal Affairs and the chief of the gendarmes, conducted a merciless struggle with revolutionary. Presented Alexander II report in which he proposed a number of economic reforms. After the murder of Alexander II and the publication Alexander III, the manifesto on strengthening autocracy was resigned.
Milyutin Dmitry Alekseevich (1816-1912) - State Affairs, Graf (1878), General_Feld Marshal (1898), Professor of the Military Academy. In 1861-1881. - Military Minister. Lead reforms in the army.
Milyutin Nikolai Alekseevich (1818-1872) - State Affairs, Comrade Minister of the Interior in 1859-1861, the actual head of the preparation of peasant reform. Brother D.A. Milyutin.
Nechaev Sergey Gennadyevich (1847-1882) - the organizer of the secret society "People's Spring" (1869), the author of the "Catechism of the revolutionary". Applied methods of hoaxes and provocations. In 1873 sentenced to 20 years. He died in the Petropavlovsk fortress.
Obnorsky Viktor Pavlovich (1851-1919) -Clear, one of the organizers of the Northern Union of Russian Workers. It was arrested and sentenced to 10 years cavities.
Perovskaya Sophia Lvovna (1853-1881) - a participant in the revolutionary movement. Born in the aristocratic family. In 1869 he entered the female courses in St. Petersburg, from 1871 - a member of the Mug of Tchaikov. In 1872-1873 and 1874-1877. He participated in the "walking in the people" as a teacher and paramedic. Judged according to the 193_X process, but was justified. In 1878, he was arrested and sent to the link to the Olonets province, but on the road fled and moved to an illegal position. From the autumn of 1879 - a member of the Executive Committee of the "People's Will". He participated in a number of attempted Alexander II. After the arrest of Zhelyabov led the preparation of the murder of Alexander II on March 1, 1881 KazNenna April 15, 1881
Rostovtsev Yakov Ivanovich (1803 / 04-1860) - State Avestigator, Chairman of the Editorial Commissions for the preparation of the provisions on peasants. In December 1825, Donons Nicholas I on plans to speeches northern society.
Tkachev Peter Nikitich (1844-1885 / 86) - a leaving from Pskov nobles; The ideologist of the conspiratorial direction in revolutionary nationality. Junior contemporary M.A. Bakunina and P.L. Lavrov, separated their faith in socialism, but on all other issues conducted an irreconcilable struggle with them. Condemned in the case of this year Nechaeva, he was serving a sentence, then he was sent to the Pskov province. From there he fled abroad, where I published the Nabat newspaper. Tkachev believed that a strong centralized state will continue after the victory of the revolution. In 1882, he began his spiritual disorder, and after three years he died.
Halturin Stepan Nikolayevich (1856/57-1882) -Od from the organizers of the Northern Union of Russian Workers. After the defeat of the Union went to the Spirits and organized an explosion in the Winter Palace. Executed for participating in the murder of the Odessa military prosecutor.
Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828-1889) - public figure, literary critic, writer; In 1856-1862 One of the leaders of the contemporary magazine. The ideological inspirer of the revolutionary organization "Earth and Volia". Arrested in 1862 sentenced to Siberian Katorga. Released from reference in 1883
Russia in the second halfXIX. century
The reason for this war was the so-called "dispute due to keys" from Christian temples on the Holy Land. The fact is that by this time some of the keys from the temples of the holy land was in the hands of Catholic priests, part in the hands of Orthodox. But both sides wanted to possess the keys from all Christian temples on the Holy Land.
The keys to the temples on the Holy Land at the insistence of France were given to Catholics. In the spring of 1853, Russia in an ultimative form demanded from Turkish Sultan to give the keys from the temples in Bethlehem to the Orthodox priests and ordered to introduce Russian troops in the possession of Turkey - the Danube Autonomous Principles. In response, Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared Russia a war.
The war at the same time passed on the Danube and Caucasus Theater of Military Action. Initially, the war was successful for Russia. Russian troops in the Caucasus won a number of brilliant victories. Russian fleet under the command of Admiral P.S. Nakhimova won one of his outstanding victories in his story - near the Turkish Harbor Sinopa. The largest Turkish naval base was located in the Sinop Harbor. There are 14 sailing and 2 steam ships in a well-protected bay. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov decided to strike her to cut the enemy's sea communications. As a result of the four-hour battle, the Turks lost all their ships and over 3,000 killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. PS losses Nakhimova amounted to 37 people. killed and 216 wounded.
The victory of the Russian fleet in the Sinopan bay with gold letters is inscribed in the history of the Russian Navy, along with the gangut battle (1714) and Chesmest Boat (1770).
In the spring of next year, a sharp complication of the international situation occurred. England, France, Sardinia, Austria came to the rescue of Turkey.
On September 14, 1854, the huge fleet of allies - 300 transport ships under the cover of 89 warships - went to the shores of the Crimea. The allies were surrounded by Sevastopol - the main naval base of the Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol already played an exceptional role in the Black Sea. The loss of Sevastopol meant the loss of the Crimea and the impossibility of Russia to lead an active foreign policy on the Black Sea and in the Balkans. The Black Sea squadron included 26 linear (large) ships, 5 of them were flooded at the entrance to the Sevastopol bay. The city was impregnable from the sea, but he was defenseless from sushi. The allies landed an excellent armed army ashore. For open battle with such a strong enemy, the Russian fleet was weak. Nevertheless was decided the city does not pass.
The crews of all vessels (24.5 thousand people) went ashore and began to defend the city along with soldiers and locals. Since September 1854, the defenses of the city was headed by Admiral V.A. Kornilov and military engineer EI. Totleben. For a short time, sailors, soldiers, the townspeople erected several rows of defensive fortifications around the city. From October 17, a three-day bombing of the city was held. She did not lead to anything. Defenders of the city did not give up. Then the enemy switched to the siege of the city. 30 thousand garrison of the city constrained the siege of 120s. Army allies. After death on October 5, 1854 V.A. Cornilov Defense of the city was headed by P.S. Nakhimov. The ring around the city gradually shrinking. In July 1855, Admiral PS was mortally wounded. Nakhimov. In August 1855, a daily end to 2 - 3 thousand defenders of the city. In early September, Malakhov Kurgan fell - the key height of the city. On August 27, 1855, the defenders left the ruins of Sevastopol.
Sevastopol occupies a special place in Russian history. Two defense - in the period of the Crimean, as well as in the period of the Great Patriotic War, turned Sevastopol to the National Shrine of Russia.
The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was a terrible blow for Nicholas I, a military man. In early February 1855 he was easily cold, but did not take any treatment. On February 12, after receiving a message about the defeat of Russian troops under Evpatoria, his condition deteriorated sharply. As a result of the sudden development of paralysis on February 18, 1855, he died. There are versions based on numerous memoir literature, which, allegedly, Nicholas I accepted poison. Truth is unlikely to be installed, as this legend in the spirit of Shakespeare's tragedies. It is unlikely that such a strong person as Nicholas would show sinful weakness, knowing that all his acts will be carefully studied by descendants. It is unlikely that he wanted to stay in the memory of the descendants with a weak person. But the defeat of Russia, of course, crushed his spirit, and this accelerated his death. His sons of the emperor bequeathed: "Serve Russia ...".
A new emperor Alexander II Nikolaevich joined the throne. He was firmly intended to end the Crimean War.
In 1856, the Paris Mirny Treaty took place. According to his conditions, Russia was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea and naval databases. Russia passed Turkey Kars, part of Bessarabia. The southern borders of Russia were open to any enemy invasion. Russia has lost leading positions in the Balkans and the Middle East and did not play the previous role in European affairs.
The main reason for the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was the economic backwardness of Russia.
The Paris Mirny Treaty weakened Russia's position on the Black Sea, but the struggle against the mountaineers in the Caucasus continued. But she was getting harder.
The Caucasus has already buried. The center of resistance in the east of the Caucasus became Chechnya and part of Dagestan, in the West the struggle against the Russian government led the Abkhazians, Circassians and Adygi. Initially, the mountains were scattered. But after defeat in the Russian-Turkish war, 1828 - 1829. Turkish Sultan - the spiritual chapter of the whole Muslim world - announced Gazavat (sacred war) of all Muslims against the "incorrect" - Christians. In the 30s. Murids appeared in the Caucasus Mountains - Sacred War Preachers. Muridism received a special distribution among the inhabitants of the eastern Caucasian Mountains - Chechnya and Dagestan. The famous Shamil appeared in the mountains of Dagestan. It was a very brave, strong person. He knew perfectly in the laws of Islam, knew the Quran by heart. He made a magical effect on the mountaineers: they were ready to go with him to the right death. In 1834, all Chechnya and Dagestan recognized Shamil to the Prophet-Imam. From 1830 to 1840. The mountaineers won a number of victories over Russian troops. In the central part of Chechnya, Shamil created a strong theocratic state - Imamat with the capital in keen. But the laws in this state were so cruel that soon the mountains began to show dissatisfaction with the Politics of Shamil.
Russians continued to build roads, bridges, base settlements. Highlanders, seeing that the Russians do not harm them, began to move away from Shamil.
In 1856, Alexander II appointed the Governor of the Caucasus and the Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Army Prince A.I. Baryatinsky - a brilliant young commander and a talented administrator. The new commander-in-chief strengthened the Caucasian Army and instructed General N.I. Evdokimov's task of conquering Chechnya - "Osin nest" in the Caucasus. A.I. Baryatinsky acted with the troops in Dagestan. During 1858, the Russian troops won all Chechnya, and during 1859 - Dagestan.
Shamil with a detachment of the most loyal warriors in 600 people. He hovered in his last optotia - Aulu Gunib in the mountainous part of Eastern Dagestan. Aul stood on a huge hard-to-reach rock. On the night of August 26, 1859, the troops were surrounded by a dense ring. Commander-in-Chief arrived - Prince A.I. Baryatinsky. At night, the Russians scored alarming as if to start an attack. The mountaineers in the other side opened continuously. Meanwhile, on the other hand, which by the steepness was considered completely impregnable, the soldiers climbed to the top of the mountain. And when dawn, Shamil saw a whole regiment in front of him. On the thinking Shamil A.I. Baryatinsky took 20 minutes. After a short swing, Shamil decided to surrender. With weapons, Shamil was invited to A.I. Baryatinsky. The loud soldiers' "Hurray" rushed in the ranks when Shamil passed through the system. The commander-in-chief announced a prisoner that he will be sent to St. Petersburg, and his fate will be solved by the emperor himself. In the evening of the same day A.I. Baryatinsky sent a shamil from his black bear fur coat, gifts wives, daughters, children. Throughout the path of Shamil, surprisingly for him were encouraged.
In Moscow, Shamil examined the Kremlin, was in the opera. In St. Petersburg, he stayed two weeks. Seen shocked Shamil. He said: "If I knew Russia before, I would never have fought with her. Russia is big, Chechnya is small. Chechnya cannot fight with Russia."
Summer lived his days with his family in Kaluga, where he was identified a big pension. In Kaluga in 1869, Alexander II released Shamil to Mecca to make a hajj. Before leaving, being in the right mind and hard memory, Shamil said: "I wish and further the Russian emperor to successfully manage the horses for their good."
In 1862, the Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Army instead of A.I. Baryatinsky was appointed Brother Emperor Grand Prince Mikhail Nikolaevich. May 21, 1864 - on the birthday of the emperor - all Russian troops acting in the western part of the Caucasian mountains were connected. Priests served before the troops of Prayers. In the Caucasus there was not a single warring tribe. Alexander II on the message about the revival of the Caucasus replied Brother Tegramma: "Thank you, Evdokimov and the glorious our troops."
The half-century struggle of the mountain peoples with the Russians ended. In the history of the Caucasus began a new page.
On February 19, 1855, the eldest son Nikolai I - Alexander II was entered into the throne (1855 - 1881).
Alexander Nikolaevich, at the request of the Father, was brought up in a simple setting. Nicholas I said that he wants to raise in her son, above all, man. Poet V.A. was chosen to Zesarevich educators Zhukovsky, clever man, formed, noble. Six months V.A. Zhukovsky prepared a plan for the upbringing of the heir. The purpose of the upbringing and education V.A. Zhukovsky proclaimed "education for benefactors." For teaching sciences Alexander Nikolayevich, the best teachers of that time were chosen. The heir was seized by French, English, German, Polish. Count M.M. Speransky introduced his legislation and government management. Other persons have acquainted with Russia's relations with other states, with the science of national economy. Father took care that Zesarevich became a "military man." Alexander Nikolaevich since childhood could watch the parades on the parades, the divorces of the Petersburg Guard. Alexander Nikolaevich was under the strong influence of his father, took over many of his qualities, but was a man soft and generous. In 1837, at the current tradition, the heir went on a journey through Russia. In 1838, a long trip over the border took place. He visited Denmark, Prussia, Italy, Austria. During this trip, the heir met the Darmstadt Princess Maria, who in 1841 became His wife Maria Alexandrovna. Upon return, Alexander Nikolaevich was appointed a member of the State Council, and then the Committee of Ministers.
Thus, even before joining the throne, Alexander Nikolaevich was well acquainted with the affairs of the highest military and civilian government.
On the first day of the modern day of the throne, Alexander Nikolaevich was animated the most sincere intention to do everything to eliminate the shortcomings of Russian life.
On August 26, 1856, an amnesty of the Decembristians was granted on August 26, 1856, 9,000 people were released from police supervision, a censorship committee was closed, the restriction of the number of universities students was abolished, the departure of Russian subjects abroad, many Nikolaev Sanovnikov Alexander II sent to resign.
Compared to the hard Nikolaev rule, it was a new policy. Poet F.I. Tyutchev called her a thaw.
Alexander II was intended to eradicate the shortcomings of Russian life. The main disadvantage he considered the fortress right. By this time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe abolition of serfdom was widespread in the "vertices": government, among the officials, nobility, intelligentsia. Alexander II serfdom also considered the greatest evil and decided to destroy it.
Meanwhile, it was one of the most complex problems that took advantage of Alexander II into inheritance. There were 25 million fortress peasants in the country. The serfdom was stagnant in Russia - from 1497 to 1649.- and it was closely connected with different sides of the life of the Russian peasant. The peasant depended on the feudal in personal, land, property, legal relationship. The world around the Russian peasant has not changed in centuries. Now the peasant had to be released from the guardianship of the landowner, give him personal freedom.
It was necessary to solve the most difficult task:
with earth or without land to free the peasant;
at whose expense to endow his land - there was no such number of land.
In historical science, there are various opinions about the reasons that forced the autocracy to follow the abolition of serfdom. In the Soviet period, the dominant was the point of view that the serfdom of himself was outlined: not the interest of peasants in the results of its work, tightening operation in landlord estates led to a noticeable stagnation and degradation of agriculture. The profitability of landlord estates fell. The serfdom slowed down the development of productive forces in agriculture, prevented the development of industry and trade. This led to an increase in social tension at the turn of the 50s - 60s. XIX century Social tension expressed in the rise of the peasant movement and performances of radical public figures - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubova et al. As a result of this in the 60s. The revolutionary situation has emerged in Russia. According to V.I. Lenin, the revolutionary situation did not exceed the revolution, since in Russia there were no revolutionary class. The revolutionary forces were so weak that, by conducting bourgeois reforms, the government could remove the revolutionary situation.
The main provisions of another point of view are that the serfdom has not exhausted its capabilities, the anti-government performances were extremely weak. Neither the economic nor social catastrophe of Russia was threatened. The main misfortune of the Russian peasant at that time was not the lack of land and freedoms, but breaking, reluctance to work, care to other religions. But, while maintaining serfdom, Russia could leave among the great powers. The peasant reform was primarily caused by foreign policy factors, the need to maintain the status of Russia as a great power.
In the board of Nikolai I, a large preparatory material was assembled for the conduct of peasant reform. According to the testimony of P.D. Kiselev, shortly before his death in a conversation about the fortress right, Nikolai I told the heir: "It is much better that this happens from above, rather than below."
And Alexander II decided. In early 1857, the Secret Committee was established to prepare the peasant reform. Then the government decided to acquaint society about his intentions, and the secret committee was renamed the Chief Committee. The nobility of all areas should have created the provincial committees to develop peasant reform. In all committees, a real struggle was launched on the issue: with the land or without land to free the peasants. In Western Europe, the peasants were liberated without land, according to F.M. Dostoevsky, "What Mother gave birth". The king bent to the thought that the peasants need to be free from the earth.
In early 1859, editorial commissions led by Ya.I. were created for processing projects of reform of the noble committees. Rostovtsev. Commissions began to prepare the draft peasant reform. In September 1860, the developed draft reform was discussed by deputies sent by the noble committees, and then transferred to the highest state bodies.
In mid-February 1861, the provision on the liberation of peasants was considered and approved by the State Council.
On February 18, 1861, in the sixth anniversary of the death of his father Nicholas I, the emperor prayed for a long time at his tomb in the Petropavlovsky Cathedral. The next day, February 19, he was brought to signing documents on the abolition of serfdom.
It was a great law. Alexander II knew how deep changes in Russian life would follow his signing. He ordered everyone to exit the office. The king wanted to stay alone with his conscience.
Manifesto "On the admissible talent of the fasteners of the rights of the state of free rural ordinary people";
"Position" about peasants who came out of the fortress dependence.
These two documents contained the essence of the peasant reform.
Manifesto was announced in both capitals in a big religious holiday - forgiven Sunday - March 5, 1861, in other cities - in the next week. The authorities as if he asked for forgiveness from the Russian peasantry for all those resentment that she struck him.
Manifesto and "Provisions" concerned three main issues:
personal liberation of peasants;
putting their land;
redemption.
Personal liberation. Manifestus provided personal freedom to peasants and civil rights. From now on, the peasant could own driven and immovable property, to conclude transactions, act as a legal entity. He was released from the guardianship of the landowner, could be married without permission to be married, enter the service and in educational institutions, change the place of residence, to move in the estate of Messen and merchants.
The government took into account that the concept of individual, private freedom was for the peasant consciousness alien. Therefore, the community remained the first time. Community property has persisted on land, pencils of incidents, a circular order when paying taxes and the fulfillment of state duties.
The peasants remained the only estate, which paid the pillow to sue, carried the recruitous service and could be subjected to corporal punishment.
Endowing the peasants of the earth. Employment of the land of Earth regulated "Provisions". Dimensions of incidents depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three stripes: black earth, non-black, steppe. In each of them, the highest and lower dimensions of the peasant field was put on. Within these limits, the voluntary transaction of the peasant community with the landowner was concluded. Their relationship finally secured statutory letters. If the landowner and the peasant did not come to the agreement, then global mediators were involved in the dispute settlement. World mediators mainly defended the interests of the nobles, but some public figures, in particular L.N. Tolstoy, biologist K.A. Timiryazev et al., Actively defended the peasants. In different areas, the peasants received from 2 to 4 tents of the Earth on the audison soul. For the maintenance of commercial economy, the peasant had from 5 to 8 tents of the Earth. In general, in the country, the peasants received 20% of the Earth less than they were processed to reform. So the concept of "segments" appeared, as if selected landowners from the peasants. The peasants continued to consider this land with their own and fought for the return of segments until 1917.
Redemption. Getting the Earth, the peasants had to pay its cost. The peasants had no money necessary to buy land. These peasants were called "temporary". In order for the landowners to receive redeeming amounts at the same time, the state provided the peasants a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the station. For 49 years, the peasants had to return a loan to the state with a calculation of 6% per annum. Redemption payments were canceled by the Government in 1906.
The remaining 20% \u200b\u200bwas supposed to pay the landowner the peasant community. While the peasants will not pay these 20%, they had to still pay the landfill of the lifts and perform some duties.
The redemption surgery did not infringe upon the rights of landowners, did not worsened the financial situation of the state. All costs for the reform were paid for the peasants.
From 1858 to 1863, reform was carried out by the specific (belonging to the imperial family) of the peasants, and in 1866 - the reform of state peasants.
The value of the cancellation of serfdom. The peasant reform of Alexander II had a huge historical significance. She brought freedom to 25 million peasants, she opened the road for the development of bourgeois relations. In the history of Russia, a new era began - the rapid development of bourgeois relations. The abolition of serfdom marked the beginning of other major transformations. The moral importance of the reform was that she ended up with fortress slavery.
The continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia was:
urban;
judicial;
reforms in the field of education;
reforms in the field of printing.
Their main goal is to bring the state system and administrative management in line with a new social structure, in which the multi-million peasantry received personal freedom.
Zemskoy reform was carried out in 1864 on the "Regulation on the provincial and county diseases institutions" were introduced inexlerous election bodies of local self-government - Zemstvo. The Zemstvo was elected for three years and consisted of administrative bodies (provincial and county forest assembly) and executive (provincial and county forest management). Due to the high property qualification, the landowners prevailed in them. The scope of their activities was limited to economic issues of local importance: the device and content of communication routes, sizes schools, hospitals, care for trade and industry. Zemstvo was under the control of the central and local authorities who had the right to suspend any decision of the Zemstvo Assembly.
Zemstvo played a big role in the development of education and health care.
City reform. In 1870, the "city situation" was published, according to which elected self-government was introduced in 509 cities - urban Duma. All classes in the city were chosen by representatives to the city duma for 4 years. The city Duma elected its permanent executive body - the city council. The urban government consisted of urban heads and several members. The urban head was simultaneously chairman of the city council and the city council. The Duma and Governorates were engaged in the improvement of the city, the care of trade, medicine and education. In urban thinks, due to the high property values, the dominant role belonged to a major bourgeoisie. Like the Zemstvo, they were under the stringent control of the government administration.
The judicial reform was held in 1864. It was the most radical of all reforms, as it reflected the latest trends in world judicial practice.
The former court is the estate, closed, was canceled. The focus of the court, its independence from the administration, the incrementability of judges, publicity, the competition of the trial. The trial has become orally competing. Court sessions have become open to the public. Accused the defendant the prosecutor, defended - a sworn attorney. The question of the guilt of the defendant was decided by jury - representatives of the Company. The jury meetings - 12 people - were appointed by lot from representatives of all classes. After listening to the judicial debate, the jury endured the verdict: "guilty", "innocent", "guilty, but deserves condescension." Based on the verdict of the jury, the court ended the sentence.
Different judicial instances were established with strictly distinguished competence. The lower judicial authority was the world court, consisting of one person - the magistrate. The world judge was elected for three years by the county Zemsky Assembly or the City Duma. The world court disassembled minor misconduct and civil cases with a suit of up to 500 rubles. Justice proceedings in the world court was simplified. The next judicial authority was the district court.
In his competence there were criminal and grave cases. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in the judicial chamber. The Senate became the highest court. At that time, there was no such penalties as a death penalty in Russian sociable legislation. Only special judicial bodies could sentence to death - military courts, the special presence of the Senate. To parsing conflicts among the peasants, a status closed court, consisting of local peasants, was preserved. This was explained by the fact that the legal concepts of the peasants were very different from the generals. The Volos court was judged on the basis of the customs existing in this area. A widespread punishment of the volost court was corporal punishment. They existed until 1904
Military reform. In 1861, the Military Minister became D.A. Milyutin. He stayed at his post for 20 years, and in 1861 - 1874. Under his leadership, a whole series of military reforms was carried out. YES. Milyutin became the Creator of the New Russian Army. The purpose of the reform is to create a combat-ready army, which has a trained personnel, modern weapons and well-trained officer personnel. In 1874, a decree was issued on universal military service. He canceled the recruit set and introduced the all-known military service of men who had reached 21 years. The government was determined by the number of recruits every year, and only this number took from the date of conscripts. Usually, no more than 20% of conscripts were called to the service.
Taken on the service was listed on it:
in the ground forces 6 years in the actual service and 9 years in stock;
on the fleet - 7 years in the actual service and 3 years in stock.
The valid service was largely reduced depending on the educational cencing. For those who received initial education, the valid service was reduced to 4 years who graduated from the city school - up to 3 years; Gymnasium - up to one and a half years. Persons who had higher education served half a year. In the 60s. The re-equipment of the army began - the replacement of smooth-bore weapons by cutting, the introduction of the system of steel artillery guns, improvement of the equestrian park. Railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia. Of particular importance attached to the development of the military vapor fleet. To enhance the general education level of officers, two-year UNCERSK Schools and military gymnasiums were created. In order to develop higher military education, military academies were created: the General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, and others. The system of military management of troops was improved. During the years of reforms, initially nine was created, then four more military districts. At the head of military districts, commander of military districts were delivered. Gradually reduced the number of army. By the end of the XIX century. It decreased with 1 million, 100 thousand people. up to 742 thousand per 130 million population.
As a result of military reform, the combat capability of the Russian army was significantly increased, its number was significantly reduced in peacetime. At the same time, a well-trained reserve in case of war allowed to quickly create a strong army if necessary.
Education reforms. In 1863, a new university statute was published, in which Professors of the University of St. Petersburg participated. According to the new charter, universities were provided with broad autonomy: the right to choose the rector, deans, professors. University councils received the right to solve all scientific, training, administratively - financial issues. As for student self-government, even at the beginning of the Board of Alexander II was allowed to attend lecture classes at universities "Wolvesmasters" of both men and women. This led to unrest in a number of universities. Therefore, according to the university charter of 1863, students were given not such broad rights as faculty. According to the Charter, students did not have the right to create their own associations and were subject to disciplinary court, in whose members were elected from Professors by the University Council. Upon admission to the university, students gave a subscription to comply with the established university rules.
In order to prevent student unrest in the future, it was decided to reform secondary and primary education. On June 14, 1864, the Regulations on the initial folk schools were approved, according to which the state, church and society (Zemstvo) should be engaged in the formation of the people. On November 19, 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progmentation" appeared. The charter proclaimed the principle of the availability of secondary education for all classes. But a fairly high fee for training was established, which, of course, gave the right to enter only children from secured families.
The gymnasiums were divided into two types:
classic;
real (and those and others - seventy).
Classical gymnasiums gave humanitarian education, which was based on the teaching of ancient languages: Latin, Greek. In real gymnasiums, the volume of teaching mathematics and natural science increased by reducing the clock to the study of humanitarian sciences.
The goal of real gymnasiums is to give a general education to fears from all classes with certain practical skills in any profession.
In 1871, a new charter of the gymnasium was published, according to which graduated classical gymnasiums had the right to enter the university without exams. Through real gymnasiums could mostly flow into higher technical educational institutions. They have access to universities difficult. According to the charter of 1864, the defamations were also established - four-class educational institutions corresponding to the first four classes of seven-year-old classical gymnasium. Graduated from the deflection could flow into the fifth class of classical gymnasium.
Actions were implemented on the development of women's education. Before the reforms of Alexander II, only closed institutions and private pensions for girls from noble classes (from the nobility families) existed in Russia. In 1870, the position of the Ministry of People's Enlightenment on Women's Gymnasiums and Progmentation appeared. Open women's gymnasiums for girls from all estates began to appear. At the same time, the church began to open diocesan women's schools. In order to develop higher female education in a number of cities - St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan, Kiev, Odessa, pedagogical and higher female courses were opened.
Reforms in the field of printing. Since the beginning of comprehensive reforms in society, a censorship committee was raised. In 1862, it was closed, part of its functions was assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and part of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. In 1865, the government and public life problems were allowed to discuss in the press. 1865. Temporary rules were introduced related to printing. Preliminary censorship was canceled on books designed for a well-educated part of society, as well as on central, scientific publications. For the publication of periodicals, a major cash pledge was required, for the publication of some periodicals, permission was required by the permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs. Preliminary censorship persisted on provincial and massive literature for the people.
The value of reforms. Cancellation of serfdom and bourgeois reforms carried out at the Board of Alexander II are a significant event in the history of Russia. For the abolition of serfdom, the people called Alexander II liberator. Russia has largely approached the European socio-political model. The first step was made to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and the transformation of Russia into the bourgeois monarchy. The path of peaceful modernization of Russian society was opened. The rapid growth of the economy and culture of the country began. In the Russian history, the bourgeois reforms Alexander II entered the "great reforms".
But the comprehensive reforms of Alexander II had a reverse side. Obtaining personal freedom of 25 million Russian peasantry, democratic freedoms, the creation of a new structure of local governance, a change in the proceedings, the emergence of the new social structure of society, etc. led to a change in the centuries-old text of Russian life. Soon it was found that, in addition to the beneficial results, one of the results of reform was the growth of tensions in society. The inner life of the state turned out to be upset, the treasury of empty, foreign loans grew. The revival of trade and industrial activities was accompanied by the widespread financial fraud, ruin. Peasants were hung to the city from the village, but the city was not ready for receiving such a number of unqualified labor. The peasants everywhere showed discontent with reform. The Russian peasant could not "digest" the idea that he needs to pay for the land. In the village stubbornly circulated rumors that the peasants read "not that manifest." In society, the property inequality, poverty, crime grew rapidly.
The public appeared in society that the "Great Reform of 1861" It was "great deception." The tsar reformer began to cause hatred. On April 4, 1866, the student Dmitry Karacozov shot the king. The attempt of an ordinary person on the life of the anointed life of God caused shock in Russian society. Contemporaries left evidence that on that day to poet A.N. Mikes suddenly ran into a pale, shaking f.m. Dostoevsky. Not seeing anyone, he repeated everything: "He shot, ... shot, ... shot." But this shot became a symbolic sign that from now on "everything is allowed." Revolutionaries - populists sentenced the king to the death penalty. The real hunt for the king began. There were 7 attempts on him. And Alexander II at that time experienced a personal drama: he realized that his liberalization policy was crashing. The king raised, looked, lost weight. Empress Maria Alexandrovna has long been sick and chained to bed. King saved New love - Young Princess Ekaterina Dolgoruky. She was 34 years old younger than the king and gave him three children. Despite the protests of the family, the king setulated E.M. Dolgoruky with children in the Winter Palace. Empress Maria Alexandrovna quietly died in loneliness in the summer of 1880. In a month and a half, the king marked with E.M. Dolgoruky and thought about crowing it.
On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded from the explosion of a bomb abandoned by the student I. Grinevitsky.
Russia responded to the great reforms by the murder of the Tsar reformer.
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To prepare this work, materials from the site http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/ido/ffuec/
2. Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century: political, economic situation; political parties.
3. The first Russian revolution 1905-1907.
Russia in the second half of the XIX century.
The first and second half of the XIX century. It became the Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-1856. Nikolai first died in 1855 his successor became Alexander Best, tsar liberator (1855-1881). Alexander the second was the oldest son of the king, he was preparing for the occupation of the throne. Under the leadership of V.A. Zhukovsky, he brought up in the spirit of sublime spiritual and moral interests, received an excellent education, knew five languages, a military business, in 26 years old became a "full general". At the end of the training traveled in Russia and many European countries. He had a wide range, sharp mind, exquisite manners, was charming and good man. It was distinguished by liberal views. Nikolai first introduced him to the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, instructed the leadership of secret committees in the peasant business. By the time of joining the throne, he was well prepared for state activities. Alexander the Second became the initiator of reforms who set Russia into the path of capitalism. The main reason for reforms There was a defeat in the Crimean War. The war showed the degree of backwardness of the Russian Recruit Army and Sailing Fleet, weapons from the mass armies of European countries, a new type of courts and weapons. To overcome the new, humiliating position of Russia on the world stage, it was necessary to overcome backwardness in the military and the sphere of economic, which was impossible without reforms. Other reasons were the growing peasants performances, the sympathy of the king to the peasants under the impression of Turgenev "Hunter's Notes", and the education system developed for Tsarevich Zhukovsky.
First and most significant became agricultural reform 1861 g. Her preparation took about 6 years. In 1856, speaking in front of the Moscow nobility, the king said: "It is better to cancel the serfdom from above, rather than waiting for the time when it will begin to cancel from below." From 1857, the development of the Fastener Release Plan was carried out by the Secret Committee, the King himself was headed. In response to the appeal of Lithuanian nobles, Alexander Second announced a rescript in the name of Vilensky Governor General V.I. Nazimova, who resolved in the 3rd provinces to create committees to develop peasant liberation projects. In 1858, the chief committee on the peasant issue under the leadership of the Minister of Internal Affairs of S.S. Branch and the provincial committees. In 1859, editorial commissions are being created to consider the projects submitted by the provincial committees. It was permitted publication and discussion of any proposed projects for the liberation of peasants. The reform was based on the Plan of the historian of the State School K.D. Caveline. In January 1861, the reform project was transferred to the General Committee to the State Council and was approved by the king. February 19, 1861 Alexander Second signed Manifestoon the liberation of peasants "Regulations on the peasants coming out of the fortress dependence"where documents included on the procedure for implementing reform on the ground. Former privately owner peasants were in the estate of free rural orders and received civil, economic rights. The main directions of reform: liberation of serfs from personal dependence; putting their land for redemption; preservation of at least 1/3 of the land, which they owned to reform; Right land was transferred to the property of the peasant community; Giving the state loans to peasants to make a redeemed operation. The land was endowed only by the peasants, other categories of serfs were released without stuff. Passenger size Defined in the provinces of different areas from 3 to 12 tents; If the peasant agreed to put on, equal to the laid norm, he was free. The landowner had the right to cut the size below the minimum standard, if he had less than 1/3 of the land, which he owned to reform. Redemption act was fixed in statutory literacyconcluded between the landowner and the peasant, it recorded the location of the plots included in the station, their size, price, types of payments, etc. Before drawing up the statutory letter between the peasant and landlord were established temporable relations. The landowner was obliged to provide a peasant land for use, and the peasants - to perform any work, pay the lifts, i.e. the connection between them did not stop. In order to assist Parties in the compilation of statutory references and the decision of any controversial issues was created by the Institute world mediators. The peasant immediately had to pay a landlord of 20-25% of the cost, the remaining 75-80% state provided to the peasants in the form of a loan, which was given for 49 years, was redeemed by the annual payments of the peasants with the accrual of 6% per annum. The peasants were to unite in rural societies. They were introduced self management: Cases were solved on rural gatherings, rural solutions were performed, elected for three years. Rural societies of one terrain made up a rural parish, her affairs was a meeting of rural elder and special elected from rural communities. Redemption payments paid annually in aggregate rural society. The peasant who did not want to redeem the land and remain at the same place of residence, could not quit his one and leave without the consent of the Company. Such agreement was difficult, because The society was interested in buying as much as possible land. The reform went very slowly. At the conclusion of redemption acts in the black epic and non-sinnamine provinces, sections of the land prevailed in the peasants, in steppe - seeds. After the death of Alexander, his successor in December 1881. Easizes the law on the termination of the temporary relations of peasants with landowners and the obligatory redemption of land plots. He entered into force on January 1, 1884, by that time, 11-15% of peasants were preserved temporary relations. The law slightly reduced the amount of redemption payments (in Velikovsya - by 1 rub. With a shower, in Ukraine - by 16%). The law was taken into force from 1884 in 1882 g. was instituted Peasant Posmal Bankproviding loan peasants secured by property from 6.5% per annum. If the payments are delayed, they were sold from trading, this led to the ruin of many peasants. IN 1885 g. was formed Noble land bank To support landowners in the conditions of capitalist development, loans were issued under 4.5% per annum. The action of the agrarian reform of 1861 was distributed on the landlord peasants 47 provinces of Russia. In relation to other categories of dependent peasantry, on specific and state peasants Such reform was carried out in 1863 and 1866. gg For the outskirts - Even later, on the basis of special "provisions" and on more favorable terms. In the most favorable conditions, compared to the central provinces were Right-Bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus and especially Poland. In Poland (1864), the peasants received put on nodes without redemption, they evenly captured a part of the landlord land, having filled it from the gentry that took 1863-1864 in the uprising. In the worst position turned out to be peasants GeorgiaWhich was cut over 40% of the Earth. In the North Caucasus, the peasants lost almost the entire land and paid a significant amount for personal liberation. In Russia, the agrarian reform was carried out mainly on the Prussian version, which ensured the slow development of capitalism in agriculture. Despite the features of limitations, this reform had exceptional value. Personal addiction disappeared, almost the slave position of millions of the country's population. The labor market appeared. Capitalism has actively developed.
Zemskoy reform It was conducted on the "Regulations on the provincial and county land establishments" of January 1, 1864, the county and provinces were introduced in a number of provinces of Russia zemstvo - Public Local Government Bodies. The main reason for their establishment was the need to equip the life of a flame village in conditions when a few administrative state on the ground was not able to cope with the problems on their own. The government gave the case "less significant" to the public authorities of local self-government. Initially, the Zemstvo was created in 7 provinces, then their number was constantly increased, until the elimination of these bodies by the Soviet government. Science competence: insurance of farms, the creation of food and seed reserves, ensuring fire safety, the creation of a health care system and the initial, the provision of veterinary care, combating epidemics, agronomic assistance, concern for the status of communication, road construction, bridges, care for the work of mail, telegraph, about Economic provision of prisons and godly institutions, assistance in the development of local industry and trade. For their activities, the departments were allowed to impose the population of counties by fees and insights, to create crop capital, acquire property. Zemstvo had executive and Regulatory Bodies. Management Organs - county and provincial zemsky assembly, headed by them, as a rule, stood, as a rule, the provincial and county leaders of the nobility. Executive bodies - county (chairman and 2 member members) and provincial (chairman and 6-12 members of the Administration) zemskie ManagementThe chairmen were elected. The chairman of the provincial Zemstvo administration was approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, county - the governor. The bourgeois content of the Zemskoy reform was that public representatives were elected by the population for a period of 3 years. Voters were divided by 3 curia (Groups) on property census. The 1st smoke was large landowners who had at least 200 tents and owners of large trade and industrial enterprises and real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles. Among the city voters, a large and partly average bourgeoisie was presented. The 3rd smokers were represented by peasant societies, only landowners who had at least 10 decishes of the Earth or relevant income with others participated in their gatherings for elections. For the 1st and 2nd curia, the elections were straight, for the 3rd steps: in rural gatherings, electors were elected, which at the par were elected electoral assemblies that beat the vowels. Elections to the provincial Zemstvo collection took place at the county Zemsky meeting. The number of vowels to be elected was distributed in such a way that the predominance of representatives from landowners was ensured. Weakness of the state It was manifested in the absence of the All-Russian Central Body Coordinating their activities, they had a limited budget, did not have the right to publish reports on their meetings without permission, they were prohibited from political activities. In addition, after the Zemstvo counter-processing of 1890, they were set for small control of the local administration and were forced to report annually to the provincial authorities about expenses, justify the requested budget for the next year. Despite all the prohibitions, the Zemstvo began to arrange the congresses of their representatives, where they were exchanged, issued a statement, and constantly communicating with the peasants, taking care of the needs of the poor, the representatives of the scopes were penetrated with sympathy for them and at the beginning of the 20th century a new socio-political course - Zemsky liberalism appeared. Value The activities of these bodies have surpassed the expected results. They not only conscientiously performed the functions assigned to them, but also went beyond their frameworks, for example, the schools were arranged to prepare teachers for Zemstvo schools, sending the hopes of peasant children to study in universities, created a constantly replenished staff of Zemkomov, experienced fields, exhibitions of equipment and etc.
Urban reform by " Urban Regulation June 16, 1870. " envisaged the creation in cities of all-known self-government bodieswhose representatives were elected from the population, paying taxes and performing a meal. To participate in the elections, the urban population was divided into 3 curies on the property: major, medium and small owners. Each Kuria elected 1/3 of the vowels to the city duma - the administrative body. The term of their powers is 4 years. Structure city Gauge (permanently operating executive body) elected vowels from their environment. They elected urban headHe led the government, his candidacy was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs. The competence of the city authorities of self-government, the principles of activity, reporting, etc. were similar to the earth. Their activities controlled the Gubernskoye on city deeds presence under the chairmanship of the governor.
Judicial reform 1864 was the most consistent of the liberal-bourgeois reforms of the XIX century. Decree on it and "New Judicial Charters" were approved by King on November 20, 1864. The need to rebuild the judicial system was caused, first of all, the abolition of serfdom and the elimination of the feudal court. Principlesthe new judicial system: unconsciousness, publicity, competition of the trial, the introduction of the Institute of Jury, Independence and Explanability of Judges. The whole country was divided into judicial districts and world sectionsThe boundaries did not coincide with the administrative in order to avoid pressure on judges by the administration. Small civil and criminal cases considered magistrate's CourtThe cassation cases considered the congress of the world judges. The magistrates were elected by county Zemskiy meetings and urban thinks on the lists approved by the governor, and were finally approved by the Senate. The judge could not be dismissed, re-elected, except for the cases of committing a crime; However, it was possible to translate it to another district. The main structural unit of the new judicial system was district Court with criminal and civilian branches. Cases considered judges: Chairman and members of the court appointed by the government. According to the most important cases in the composition of the court CHAIR CHAIRED, COUNTRY COMMUNICATIONS AND PURCHESTERS, attracted by lots of distortion citizens of the district. The hearing took place in the presence of the accused (defendant) and the victim (plaintiff), his defender-lawyer prosecutor. The prosecutor and the lawyer conduct a judicial consequence, on the basis of which the jury makes the verdict (after the secret meeting) of the guilt or innocence of the defendant, on the basis of this court makes a sentence, assigning a measure of punishment or exempt the defendant. The proceedings on civil claims were held without jury. Cassation cases viewed the court chamber (9-12 of the district judges), the Senate and its departments in the field was the highest judicial authority. Consultability of the court was originally brokenthe existence of special systems of ships for a number of categories of the population. For the peasants there was a special court court; Special Court - consistory - for clergy; The cases of the highest officials considered directly Senate; For the military there were several ships ( tribunal, Military Field Court, Regimental Court); for political processes introduced military courts, special presence in the Senate and punitive measures in administrative order (without trial).
Before the judicial reform, in 1863., were canceled corporal punishments For unprivileged classes, with the exception of peasants (RESIGHTS continued to sentences of volost vessels), exiles, cortishes and penalties (rose).
Military reforms Actively was held in 1862-1884, their military minister D.A. Milutin began them. The structure of the military ministry was simplified, the departments were enlarged. The country was divided into military District, headed by commander of Districtswho were responsible for all the affairs (supply, pickup, preparation, etc.), he was obeyed by military parts of the district. Since 1863, part of the soldiers are dismissed into a permanent vacation, without waiting for the end of a 25-year-old service life, they made a stock. IN 1874. was accepted new military statuteintroduced universal military service, recruit sets were canceled. Men of all classes that have reached 20-21 were required to undergo a valid 6-year-old service in the ground forces and 7-year-old in the Navy, then quitted for 9 years and 3 g. Respectively. With a large number of people's population, the service was called on the lot, the rest were militia and held military fees. From the mandatory service was released The only feeders in the family, faces with education, doctors, teachers of schools and gymnasiums, artists of the imperial theaters, railway workers, confessors, as well as "foreigners" as unrealized. For 5 years, the call of persons who began commercial activities was deprived. To prepare personnel officers A network of new educational institutions was introduced. Cadet buildings, except Page, Finland and Orenburg, were closed, instead were created military schools (6 Schools with 3-year training), their graduates received the title of a pitch. Contingent for schools prepared military gymnasiums (18 gymnasiums with a 7-year learning date) and progimania (8 with 4-year training). In 1882, all of them were again transformed into Cadet CasesBut on the basis of the combination of programs of the gymnasiums and military schools. For higher military education were created military Academy and Marine School. The Academy adopted persons who graduated from a military school and who served in the army at least 5 years. In 1884 were created junkers schools With 2-year training, soldiers were accepted there, which manifested the ability to service and completed the valid service, graduates were not assigned to the officer rank, he was received at the place of service during the vacancy. In the infantry officers-noblemen accounted for 46-83%, in the fleet - 73%. The re-equipment of the army was carried out. As a result of reform, the army became more prepared professionally, there was a large stock, the system of manual became more efficient.
Were held reforms in the field of education and censorship. According to the "Regulation" of 1864, the initial folk schools Could open public organizations and individuals (with the permission of government agencies), the management of the work of training (programs, etc.) was carried out by officials, councils of schools and advice of directors and school inspectors; The educational process was strictly regulated (instructions, etc.). The children of all classes, ranks and religions were entitled to study. But in the gymnasiums existed a high training fee. Classic gymnasiumswith a 7-year-old training (from 1871 - with 8-year-olds), they prepared students to enter universities mainly to train officials. Real gymnasiums (later - real schools) with a 6-year-old course were designed to prepare personnel for industry and trade, their graduates opened access to the highest technical training institutions, they were not accepted into universities. The division of high school into two types was focused on training in classical schools of children of nobles and officials, in real - children of the bourgeoisie. Administration female gymnasiums should be the beginning of female secondary education. Universities women were not allowed. In sphere higher education There have been significant changes. In the 1860s. Universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, Helsingfors (Finland), Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy in Moscow, Polytechnic Institute in Riga, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Alexandria (Ukraine), Higher Women's Courses in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kiev. IN 1863. Was introduced new Charter of universitiesrestoring their autonomy. The direct leadership of the university was instructed by the Council of Professors, the confutor, the deanov and the new professorical and teaching staff. But for the activities of universities, supervision was carried out by the Minister of Education and Trustees of the Training District. Student organizations were not permitted. IN 1865. introduced "Temporary regulations on the press", canceled the preliminary censorship for periodicals and books of a small amount published in the capital's cities.
On the Tsar-liberator, several attempts were committed by the participants of revolutionary organizations. After the explosion of the bomb in the Winter Palace, Alexander, the second creates the country's Supreme Regulatory Commission for the leadership, headed by the Count M.T.Laris-Melikov, appointed by the Interior Minister. This is called "Dictatorship of Loris-Melikov", "Dictatorship of the Heart". Loris Melikov actively fought terrorism, abolished the third department, which showed his inconsistency, and created the Department of Police in the structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs instead. The conservative ministers were removed from the government, supporters of reforms were taken to the place, then a conservative was the Ober-prosecutor of the Synod, the apologue of the autocracy of the KP Pobedonossev. A censorship was weakened, the king requested Loris-Melikov developing the reform program for the coming years. Projects were prepared (Constitution Loris-Melikova)But were not carried out. March 1, 1881 Alexander the second was killed People.
His throne got him Alexander III, peacekeeper king(1845-1894, Emperor since 1881). He was not prepared for reigning, he took the throne due to the death of her older brother. He received an education corresponding to the provision of the Grand Duke, was a diligent student and pupil, was not stupid, but also did not have a sharpness of the mind, more than other items loved military affair. Rough, rustic and unpretentious in everyday life, he ruled, as if "fulfilling the duties of the king" with the inherent in good faith. During his reign, Russia did not participate with the wars. The king believed that the country should engage in internal problems. According to conviction, he was a conservative, a supporter of "inviolability of autocracy", which was stated in Manifesto on April 29, 1881, developed by the victorious. He rejected the petition about the pardon of the First Armenians. The Rights of Alexander the Third marks transition to reaction and counterflowaimed at partial coagulation of the liberal reform of the predecessor. After the royal manifest, all the ministers of reforms were resigned, candidates for their place were picked up victorious.
Previously, others began judicial counterformation. In August 1881 G. was published Regulations on measures to fight state order and public peace": Governors were granted the right to declare the province" in a state of strengthened and emergency protection ", to transfer the military court" for state crimes or attacks on the troops, police and all officials in general, "to demand a closed court. This provision introduced for 3 years operated until 1917 in 1887 g. was published law on restricting public meetings in court. The court was given the right to close the doors to the public, which created opportunities for arbitrariness. With the same purpose, a number of changes were made to the provisions of the judicial reform. Since July 1889 by the Law on Zemsky Chiefs The world court abolished, its functions were transmitted to new judicial and administrative officials - district Zemstvo chiefs. They had the right to suspend the decisions of the volost court, to appoint a volost judge, impose fines and expose to arrest administrative proceedings. The supervision of the execution of their solutions was carried out by the provincial presence led by the governor. Under the influence of the struggle of workers the registration of all-Russian working legislation began. In 1885, a law was published on the prohibition of women and adolescents. In 1886 - the law on the procedure for hiring and dismissal, about the streamlining of fines and pay payments, the Institute of Factory Inspectors was introduced to control his observance. In 1887 - the law on restricting the duration of the working day in harmful production and severe physically.
Councils were conducted in the region enlightenment and seals. In 1882, St. Petersburg Higher Women's Medical Courses were closed, the reception to other higher female courses was stopped. Introduced " Temporary Print Rules", According to which newspapers who received" warnings "were supposed to undergo a preliminary censorship on the eve; Meeting of Ministers of Enlightenment, Interior, Justice and Holy Synod was given the right to close the periodical edition, prohibit the work, not loyal to power. Stranded was the activities of folk ready and libraries. Since 1888, the special department of the Committee under the Ministry of Education revised the Catalog of books reader, for their discovery required the permission of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the heads were appointed with the consent of the governor. In the field of education, a line was carried out on the coagulation of the autonomy of educational institutions, the narrowing of the access of lower estates to training, strengthening the influence of the Church. The network of church-party schools was transferred to the maintenance of Synod, the short-term schools of the diplomas - to the maintenance of diocesan schools; In schools of the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment, the teaching of the "Law of God" was expanded. IN 1887. was published circular (nicknamed " curpic Children's Law"), Offering only children of well-mounted citizens, who could create" they needed for training knowledge that could be created in the gymnasium and definition. It reduced their access to children "Kucher, Laces ... and the like people", except for particularly gifted. With the same purpose, training fee was raised. IN 1884. was published new university Statute. At the head of each university, a trustee and the rector appointed by the Minister of People's Enlightenment, the rector with broad administrative powers, narrated the rights of scientists, councils and faculty meetings. Professor were appointed Minister, deans - a trustee of the academic district, who claimed the plans and programs, watched the university's life, could approve the journals of the Council meetings, to appoint benefits, etc. The assistant rector in the organization of supervision of students was an inspector. The position of the students was regulated by the rules. For an applicant required a certificate of behavior from the police. Student meetings and speeches were paid, the form was introduced. Increased training fee. The charter caused the protests of student and professors. The answer is dismissal and exception. All events were aimed against access to the highest school of immigrants from the media.
Government restricted Zemskoye and city government. Since 1889, global mediators, their county congresses, county in the peasant cases of presence were replaced by the district zemskiy chiefs appointed from the nobles and executing and judicial and administrative functions. They had the right to suspend the decision of the rural gathering. IN 1890 g. Adoption of a new " The provisions on the provincial and county diseases institutions "was conducted for Zemsky counterformation. The dependence of the departments from the administration increased, no decision of the Zemstvo Assembly could enter into force without its approval by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The vowels election system changed. Elected from the parish was only candidates for vowels, the governor selected from their list and appointed vowels to the land, given the recommendations of the Zemstvo chief. The amount of vowels from the peasants was reduced, from the nobles increased by reducing the total number of vowels. " City position "1892provided electoral rights mainly by real estate owners, increased property values, which significantly reduced the number of voters.
IN sphere of economy The government held a course to support and develop the domestic industry, trade, stabilization of the financial system and the development of the capitalist sector in the village in the face of the noble land tenure. IN 1882 The year was canceled by a pillow from landless peasants and was reduced by 10% with former fortress peasants. This law entered into force from 1884 finally pillow to file was canceled in 1885 G., was replaced by other taxes. Creating a peasant march (1882) and noble land (1885) banks Provided lending to land owners. Act of hiring agricultural workers (1886) obliging peasants to sign the contract on the work at the landowners and established punishment for the self-alignment. He contributed to the stabilization of the market of hired labor in the village. In the context of the growth of "land hunger" in order to weaken tensions in the village in 1886 and 1893. gg Published laws imperative Non-land land (the consent of the senior member of the family and the peasant gathering) and the redistribution of community land (no more than 1 time in 12 years); The early redemption of the station is allowed with the consent of the non-one of the two third rural departments, the sale of passes not belonging to the rural society is prohibited. IN 1899 The laws are issued, canceling a circular lie Peasants-communities when charging payments. In their development, the Minister of Finance took an active part S.Y.VITTE, It is he at the end of the XIX century. carried out the management of economic policies, and from the beginning of the twentieth century. - all areas of government activities. S.Yu. Witte no burden by birth, graduated from Novorossiysk University. Made a brilliant career in the public service. Passed from the office of the Odessa Governor's employee, a small employee of the promising railway industry, to the Minister of Communications (since 1882), Minister of Finance (since 1882), Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (since 1903) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1905- 1906). It was distinguished by a sharp mind, the independence of judgment, the absence of subdrance and scrupulousness, not exquisite manners. The monarchist on convictions, the ideal of the statesman, he considered Alexander the third, in turn he was highly appreciated. He showed himself as a skilled diplomat at the conclusion of the Portsmouth world, as a pillar of autocracy in the development of the Tsarist Manifesto on October 17, 1905. Even his enemies could not not recognize that everything made them contributed to the strengthening of the Great Russia. Economic platform S.Yu.Vitte: reduce the distance between Russia and the developed countries of Europe by attracting foreign capital, the accumulation of domestic resources, customs protection of goods of domestic production; take a strong position in the markets of the East; Creating a solid average layer of good taxpayers in the face of the peasants of the owners. The expansion of the railway network considered the "medicine from poverty." S.Yu.Vitte understood that in a short time, Russia cannot catch up with advanced industrial countries, therefore, it is necessary to benefit from the existing potential. He takes an active and quickly paying for itself construction of public rail lines In the European part of Russia, the Trans-Siberian highway (1891-1905) for the transportation of goods from the Pacific and the implementation of intermediary trade, the CERE (1897-1903). IN 1887-1894 gg In Russia, customs duties were improved on the import of iron, cast iron, stone coal; For the products of the manufacturing industry, they reached 30%. It got the name " customs war" Germany raised duties on grain, which contradicted the interests of Russian exporters, in the interests of which were changed domestic railway tariffs. On the western lines, they decreased, which facilitated the export; On the southern and oriental rises in order to prevent the import of cheap bread from the Volga region and the North Caucasus to the center. IN 1894 Vitte concluded mutually beneficial customs contract with Germany. IN 1894-1895 He achieved rubble stabilization, and B. 1897 introduced the Gold CashThat increased the domestic and external ruble exchange rate, ensured the influx of foreign capital, caused the rise in price of export bread and discontent exporters. Witte was an unlimited supporter attracting foreign capital in industry, distribution of foreign concessionsbecause The state of the state did not have enough fundamental, and the landowners reluctantly embeded them in entrepreneurship. Active factory-building factory construction at the end of the 19th-early 20th centuries. got the name " industrialization Witte" To replenish the treasury he introduced state wine monopoly, giving up to ¼ budget revenues. Witte began work on agrarian question, I achieved the elimination of a circular order in the community, developed a reform on the introduction of the private ownership of the peasants to the Earth, but did not have time to implement it, obviously, considering it not priority. IN 1897. In Russia, was first conducted universal population census, the number of it was 125.6 million people. In many ways, it is as a result of the activities of S.Yu.Vitte 1890s. steel period of economic recovery of Russia: A record number of railway lines was built, the ruble was stabilized, the industry was raised, Russia went to the world's first place in the world in the first place in Europe on the export of bread, which became its main article.
History of Russia from ancient times until the end of the XX century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich
Russian culture in the second half of the XIX century.
Cancel of serfdom, other reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century Left to serious changes in the social, economic and political life of the country. The confrontation of revolutionaries and autocracy had a certain influence on literature and art. Social pointedness is a characteristic feature of many works of literature, drama, painting of the pattern time, sometimes with photographic accuracy of reflecting those dramatic events that took place in Russia. New phenomenon of the second half of the nineteenth century There was a wide entry into the literature and the art of the differences. These people from different layers of society, often from the bottom, tried to convey their bitter life experience in the work.
Literature . In the works of Russian writers the second half of the XIX century. One way or another, they reflected the pressing issues of the flagship life. Despite the differences in the origin, political views, the attitude towards religion, most writers united artistic realism. What they would write about them, their thoughts rotated around the problems associated with the search for the meaning of life, social justice, sympathy for "humiliated and offended", condemning the arbitrariness of the authorities. L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, as if complementing each other, in his works depicted the life of a person in all the variety of her relationship with the world. Outragia satire M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, lyrical poems F.I. Tyutchev, mysterious Russian soul in stories and posts N.S. Leskova, "Oblomovshchyna" I.A. Goncharova, decline of "noble nest" I.S. Turgenev, merchant medium in Drams A.N. Ostrovsky, greatness and tragedy of man in the creations of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky - all this makes Russian literature for the second half of the nineteenth century. Great.
Painting . In 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to perform final work on a given classic plot. The initiator of the "Academic Bunt" was I.N. Kramskaya, who a little later headed the "Association of Mobile Art Exhibitions". Movements opposed the pompous Academism and sought in their work to reflect real life. The main place in their works was occupied by genre painting. Movies were interested in the ideological side of creativity. In the first years of the existence of the "partnership", most artists put the ideological side of painting above the aesthetic. And as a result, their paintings reflected the acute vision of the socio-political processes in the country, and sometimes they were illustrated to specific events. The best Russian artists at different times were participants in mobile exhibitions: I.N. Kramskaya, V.I. Surikov, I.E. Repin, N.N. GE, I.I. Shishkin, I.I. Levitan, V.A. Serov et al.
However, with the advent of photography, a change in the aesthetic tastes, painting of the mother-in-law lost its social acute. In addition, there are many like-minded people. The Academy of Arts was not alien to new trends. A number of prominent animgers (Repin, Queenji) became its members. Riot Mobile at the end of the century repeated the new generation of artists. A group of young painters united around the magazine "The World of Art" (1898) and collapsed with a sharp criticism of the work of the Mobile. "Miriskusnikov" united the recognition of the intrinsicity of art as such and the denial of his ideological role. The flourishing of their creativity already applies to the beginning of the next century.
Architecture . The socio-economic situation in the defective time has changed the requirements for residential and public buildings. The architecture focused on the functions of the building. However, his appearance, regardless of the appointment of the construction, was sometimes very bizarre (up to the Mauritan style). The dominance of eclecticism continued almost the entire second half of the 4th century. At this time, new types of buildings appear: universal shops, passengers, apartment buildings, train stations, large hotels, museums. A quick pace is the construction of industrial warehouse enterprises. It is these types of buildings that displace the monumental classic buildings of the past.
In recent years, hih century The architecture comes the era of Modern style, whose flourishing is already at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Music . A huge role in the development of musical culture was played by the creative association of composers M.A. Balakiriev, M.P. Garbage, Ts.A. Kyui, A.P. Borodina and N.A. Roman Corsakov, known as the "mighty hand." At the beginning of the 60s. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, the efforts of the brothers A.G. and N.G. Rubinsteins were opened by the conservatory, which began the beginning of a professional musical education in Russia. World fame acquired musical works of P.I. Tchaikovsky. Russian music of the second half of the nineteenth century, using the folk folklore and national motives, continued the traditions of Russian classical music.
This text is a familiarization fragment. Author Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich From book history. New Full Schoolchild Reference for Preparation for EEG Author Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich From book history. New Full Schoolchild Reference for Preparation for EEG Author Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich Author Kiselev Alexander FedotovichChapter 6 Peoples and the culture of Russia in the second half of the XIX
From the book History of Russia. XIX century. 8th grade Author Lyashenko Leonid MikhailovichChapter Sixth Russian Culture in the first half of the XIX
From the book History of Russia from ancient times until the beginning of the XX century Author Froyanov Igor YakovlevichRussian culture in the first half of the XIX century. The first half of the XIX century. It was noted a significant progress of Russian culture, accompanied by the development of education, science, literature and art. It also reflected the growth of the identity of the people, and new democratic principles,
From the book the history of the cavalry [with illustrations] Author Denison George Taylor.Chapter III. Russian cavalry In the second half of the 18th century, Peter the Great led his horse in a very good condition, but after him no longer cease to make different changes and improvements in it with the concepts of time. So, in Elizabeth, Petrovna was introduced
From the book. Domestic history (until 1917) Author Dvornchenko Andrey Yuryevich§ 16. Russian culture in the first half of the XIX century. The first half of the XIX century. It was noted a significant progress of Russian culture, accompanied by the development of education, science, literature and art. It also reflected the growth of the identity of the people, and new democratic principles,
Author Nikolaev Igor MikhailovichRussian culture in the first half of the XVIII century. The process of recruiting culture, which began in the previous century, during the first half of the XVIII century. It leads to a predominance of a secular beginning, discontinuity with the traditions of isolationism, characteristic of the preceding time. Decisive
From the book History of Russia from ancient times until the end of the XX century Author Nikolaev Igor MikhailovichRussian culture in the second half of the XVIII century. Bo? Left part of the second half of the XVIII century. I fell on the era of the Board of Catherine II. Perhaps no one in the Russian throne, nor after Catherine, did not have such an influence on the development of culture and education, like her. Never happened in
From the book History of Russia from ancient times until the end of the XX century Author Nikolaev Igor MikhailovichRussian culture in the first half of the XIX century. The development of culture is inextricably linked with the life of the country. In the first half of the 4th century, as, however, and throughout its length, the development of domestic culture was largely due to, on the one hand, the struggle between old orders and those
From the book the history of the cavalry [without illustrations] Author Denison George Taylor. From the book the history of cavalry. Author Denison George Taylor.Chapter 22. Russian Cavalry In the second half of the XVIII century Peter I, the Great put his cavalry on a very effective basis, however, however, and subsequently given a variety of improvements to continue to meet the ideas of time.
From the book a brief course of Russia's history from ancient times before the beginning of the XXI century Author Kerov Valery VsevolodovichTopic 44 Culture of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Plan1. General characteristic.1.1. Social and historical conditions.1.2. Main features.2. Education and enlightenment.2.1. Liberal reforms: reforms in primary education. - Development of secondary education. -
From the book History of the Ukrainian SSR in ten volumes. Tom Third Author Collective authorsCHAPTER V Culture in Ukraine In the second half of the XVII, the reunification of Ukraine with Russia had a beneficial effect on the development of education, literature, art, contributed to the further rapprochement and mutual enrichment of the cultures of Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian and
From the book The story of the Tver Edge Author Vorobev Vyacheslav Mikhailovich§§ 45-46. The culture of the Tver region in the second half of the XIX - early XX B. Significant changes occurred in the education system. The Tver men's gymnasium created at the beginning of the century became from the 1860s. refer to classic. Much attention was paid to study
Public lift in the period of cancellation of serfdom created favorable conditions for the development of Russian science.
In the eyes of the younger generation grew the meaning and attractiveness of scientific activity. Graduates of Russian universities began to go to internships to foreign scientific centers more often, the contacts of Russian scientists with foreign colleagues revived.Big successes were achieved in the field of mathematics and physics. Pafnutius Lvovich Chebyshev (1821 -1894)made a major discoveries in mathematical analysis, the theory of numbers, probability theory. In I860, he was elected a foreign member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Chebyshev marked the beginning of the St. Petersburg mathematical school. Many talented scientists came out of it, including Alexander Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857 - 1918). His discoveries pushed the development of a number of most important directions of mathematics.
Bright phenomenon in the history of science was Sophia Vasilyevna Kovalevskaya (1850-1891). Back in early youth, she discovered outstanding mathematical abilities. But Russian universities were closed for women, and she left abroad. There she received the degree of Doctor Science, became a professor at the Stockholm University, where he read a number of brilliant courses in mathematics. Proceedings of Kovalevskaya received world recognition.
In the development of physics, the outstanding role played Alexander Grigorievich Councils (1839-1896). It owns a number of studies in the field of photovoltaic phenomena, subsequently used when creating modern electronic technology.
The development of physical sciencedetected success in electrical engineering. P. N. Appleko created an arc lamp ("Candle of Apple") and the first transformation of AC. A. N. Lodiodogin invented a more advanced incandescent lamp.
The opening of the world value was the invention of the radio telegraph. Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859-1905), Son of the priest, still in student years showed interest in electrical engineering. In the future, the study of electrical phenomena, electromagnetism became the main direction of its scientific searches. In 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he made a presentation on the use of electromagnetic waves to transmit signals. The device demonstrated by them, the grope, was essentially the first receiving radio station in the world. In subsequent years, he created more advanced devices, but his attempts to establish radio communications on the Navy came across skepticism and misunderstanding of the command.
Marine officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky (1825-1890)he devoted his life to creating an aircraft heavier than air. He studied the flight of birds, made the model, and in 1881 he began the construction of an aircraft with two steam machines with a capacity of 20 and 10 hp. The Mozhaisk plane was different and technically competent design for its time. There are no official documents about its test. Apparently, the flight attempt ended unsuccessfully due to insufficient engine power. The creation of an aircraft on steam engines is unlikely to be feasible at all. Such later experiences abroad were also small: the French inventor K. Ader in 1891 managed to fly only 100 m. The level of the then technology did not allow Mozhaisk to implement his brave intention, but the inventor came to the decision of the problem, and his name The right is written in the history of aviation.
60-70s of the XIX century. called " golden century»Russian chemistry. Student N. N. Zinina Alexander Mikhailovich Butlers (1828-1886) Developed the theory of chemical structure, the main provisions of which did not lose values \u200b\u200bto the present. In the second half of the XIX century. Made his discoveries a great chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907). He was born in Tobolsk in the family of the director of the gymnasium. His talent as a scientist unfolded at the University of St. Petersburg. The greatest merit of Mendeleev was the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements. At his foundation, Mendeleev predicted the existence of many then still unknown elements. Mendeleev's book " Basics of chemistry"It was translated almost all European languages.
D. I. Mendeleev thought a lot about the fate of Russia. Its exit to the path of economic and cultural lifting, he connected with the wide and rational use of natural wealth, with the development of the creative forces of the people, the dissemination of education and science. He outlined his thoughts about the present and the future in the books To the knowledge of Russia», « Cherished thoughts», « Notes on folk education in Russia».
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
Using chemistry and biology, Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev (1846-1903) Put the beginning of the modern soil science. He revealed a complex and long-term process of soil origin. The world glory of Dokuchaev brought a monograph " Russian chernozem" In the book " Our steppes before and now"(1892) The scientist outlined the plan to combat droughts. The ideas of Dokuchaev influenced the development of forestry, land reclamation, hydrogeology and other sciences.
Outstanding Russian scientists, the scientist, the founder of Russian physiology became Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905). At first, his fate was as well as most of his peers from noble families. He became an officer, served in a sapper shelf. But, feeling an attraction to scientific work, resigned and entered the Wolved List at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. After graduating from the course of science, he went abroad at his own expense to improve in medicine. He was lucky to become a student of the famous German scientist Gelmholtz, physics, mathematics, physiologist and a psychologist. During the border of Sechenov, prepared thesis on the physiology of alcoholic intoxication. Returning to his homeland, he headed the Department of Physiology in the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgery Academy and organized a physiological laboratory - one of the first in Russia. An outstanding importance had its lecture course on bioelectricity. In the future, he was engaged in the problems of human psyche. Wide fame received the works of Sechenov " Brain reflexes"And" Psychological etudes».
The activities of another world-famous Russian biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikova (1845-1916), focused in the field of microbiology, bacteriology, medicine. In 1887, swords, at the invitation of French scientist Louis Pasteur, moved to Paris and headed one of the laboratories of the Pasteur Institute. Until the end of his days, he did not break the ties with Russia, corresponded with Sechenov, Mendeleev, other Russian scientists, repeatedly came to his homeland, helped Russian traitors in his famous Institute. The French government, highly appreciated the scientific achievements of Mechnikov, awarded him the Order of the Honorary Legion.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov
Professional historians have long been not satisfied by many different labor N. M. Karamzin " History of Russian Goverment" Many new sources were revealed on the history of Russia, complicated ideas about the historical process. In 1851 the first volume was published History of Russia since ancient times"Written by a young professor at Moscow University Sergey Mikhailovich Solovyov (1820- 1879). Since then, for many years, a new volume has come out annually " Stories" The last, the 29th volume came out in 1880. The events were brought to 1775.
Comparing the historical development of Russia and other European countries, Solovyov found a lot in common in their destinies. He also noted the originality of the historical path of Russia. In his opinion, it consisted in its intermediate position between Europe and Asia, in the forced centuries-old combat with steppe nomads. At first, Asia fell, Solovyov believed, and about the XVI century. In the offensive crossed Russia - advanced forepost in the east.
« Russian history"S. M. Solovyov is written at a high professional level, still used by experts, reprinted. She is familiar to everyone who is interested in domestic history. However, the style of presentation in it is somewhat dry, in this respect it is inferior Stories»Karamzin.
Student Solovyov was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841 -1911). He replaced his teacher at the Department of Russian History at Moscow University. In accordance with the spirit of time, Klyuchevsky showed great interest in socio-economic issues. He tried to trace the process of folding the fortress relations in Russia, to identify their essence from the economic and legal points of view. Klyuchevsky possessed an outstanding gift of live, figurative presentation. His "Russian history course", compiled on the basis of university lectures, still has a wide reader audience.
Klyuchevsky led the quiet, measured life of the cabinet scientist, externally poor events. " In the life of a scientist and writer, he said, - the main biographical facts - books, the most important events - thoughts».
Not only in Russia, but also abroad received the largest Russian scientists who worked in the field of universal history. Maxim Maksimovich Kovalevsky (1851-1916)it was famous for his works on the history of the European Peasant Community. Of particular importance for the Russian reader had his work " The origin of modern democracy", Where the turning points of European history of the end of the XVIII century were considered.
In the second half of the XIX in. Russian scientists have achieved significant success in different branches of knowledge. Moscow and Petersburg have come in the number of world scientific centers.
