American Psychiatrist, Neurobiologist Eric Richard Kande was born on November 7, 1929 in the city of Vienna in a Jewish family.
Eric's parents were born on the territory of modern Ukraine: a mother in Kolomy, and his father in the town of Olesko (near Lviv). Eric's parents got married in 1923. Father at that time had its own toy store. But in March 1938, after annexation of Austria, Germany, Jewish property expropriated - did not exception and the store of Herman Kandela, Father Erica.
At the nine-year-old age, Eric and his fourteen-year-old brother, Ludwig was destined to cross the Atlantic Ocean. In the spring of 1939, they sailed on the ship "Gersholstein" from Antwerp. On May 11, the brothers arrived in Brooklyn, to their uncle. Later, their parents also reached successfully in the United States.
Thanks to the efforts of the grandfather, Eric was dedicated to all Jewish traditions, so without problems was adopted in Yeshiv Fletobush, which he graduated in 1944. Later he entered the school Erasmus Hall, where he received secondary education. In Erasmus Hall Kande worked as a sports observer in the school newspaper. Higher education received at Harvard University. In 1952 he began to study at the University of New York Medical School. During his studies, he got acquainted with his future wife, Denise Bystrin. At this time, studies also conducted research at the Harry Grundfest laboratory in Columbia University. In 1962 he went to Paris to study the mollusk of the Appliance (Aplysia Californica). This determined his further fate.
Using the Nervous Sea Mollusc system as a model, he revealed that changes in the activities of Synaps are the main in the memory mechanism. Protein phosphorylation in synapse plays an important role in the formation of short-term memory. To form long-term memory, conversions are also necessary in the synthesis of protein, which lead to changes in the shape and function of the synapse. When excited by both neurons of this synapse, changes are beginning to occur in its synaptic slit, which themselves do not prove that they are related to short-term memory, although they affect the passage of the signal through synaps. If the image in memory is supported using positive feedback - self-excitation, then changes in synapse can, of course, break the connection and repay this image, but not vice versa.
At first, Eric Kandela began to study the mechanisms for the formation of memory in mammals, however, to understand the main memory processes, their nervous system was very complex. The scientist decided to use a simpler experimental model - the nervous system of aplishment, consisting of 20,000 neurons, many of which are large (up to 1 mm).
Eric Kandell proved that the apliance both short-term and long-term memory "is localized" in Sinapse, in the 90s he conducted similar studies on mice. The scientist managed to prove that the same type of memory formation, which was discovered in mollusk, exists in mammals.
Similar mechanisms of memory, Eric Candel revealed to a person. It can be said that the human memory "is localized in synapses" and changes in the synapse function are the main in the process of forming various types of memory. It is better to say that memory is not localized in the synapse itself, but is determined by the conductivity of this synapse. Although the path to understanding the entire complex complex of the memory process is still long, the results of the research of Erica Candela became the basis for further scientific search.
In 2000, Eric Candell, together with Arvid Karlsson and Paul Greenard, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine for the discovery related to the transmission of signals in the nervous system.
Eric's parents were born on the territory of modern Ukraine: a mother in Kolomy, and his father in the town of Olesko (near Lviv). Eric's parents got married in 1923. Father at that time had its own toy store. But in March 1938, after the annexation of Austria, Germany, Jewish property expropriated - did not exception and the shop of Herman Kandeil, Eric's father.
At the nine-year-old age, Eric and his fourteen-year-old brother, Ludwig was destined to cross the Atlantic Ocean. In the spring of 1939, they sailed to the ship "Gershorstein" from Antwerp. On May 11, the brothers arrived in Brooklyn, to their uncle. Later, their parents also reached successfully in the United States.
Thanks to the efforts of the grandfather, Eric was dedicated to all Jewish traditions, so without problems was adopted in Yeshiv Fletobush, which he graduated in 1944. Later he entered the school Erasmus Hall, where he received secondary education. In Erasmus Hall Candel worked as a sports observer in the school newspaper. Higher education received at Harvard University. In 1952 he began to study at the University of New York Medical School. During his studies, he got acquainted with his future wife, Denise Bystrin. At this time, studies also conducted research at the Harry Grundfest laboratory in Columbia University. In 1962 he went to Paris to study the mollusk of the Appliance (Aplysia Californica). This determined his further fate.
Using the Nervous Sea Mollusc system as a model, he revealed that changes in the activities of Synaps are the main in the memory mechanism. Protein phosphorylation in synapse plays an important role in the formation of short-term memory. To form long-term memory, conversions are also necessary in the synthesis of protein, which lead to changes in the shape and function of the synapse. When excited by both neurons of this synapse, changes are beginning to occur in its synaptic slit, which themselves do not prove that they are related to short-term memory, although they affect the passage of the signal through synaps. If the image in memory is supported using positive feedback - self-excitation, then changes in synapse can, of course, break the connection and repay this image, but not vice versa.
At first, Eric Candel began to study the mechanisms for the formation of memory in mammals, however, to understand the main memory processes, their nervous system was very complex. The scientist decided to use a simpler experimental model - the nervous system of aplishment, consisting of 20,000 neurons, many of which are large (up to 1 mm).
Eric Candel proved that the apliance both short-term and long-term memory "is localized" in Sinapse, in the 90s he conducted similar studies on mice. The scientist managed to prove that the same type of memory formation, which was discovered in mollusk, exists in mammals.
Similar memory mechanisms, Eric Candel revealed in humans. It can be said that the human memory "is localized in synapses" and changes in the synapse function are the main in the process of forming various types of memory. It is better to say that memory is not localized in the synapse itself, but is determined by the conductivity of this synapse. Although the path to understanding the entire complex complex of the memory process is still long, the results of Eric Candela research have become the basis for further scientific search.
In 2000, Eric Candel, together with Arvid Karlsson and Paul Greenard, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine "For discoveries related to the transmission of signals in the nervous system".
Eric (Eric) was born on November 7, 1929 in Vienna in the Jewish family of Herman and Charlotte Candelas from Kolomyia. Hermann Candela owned the toy store on the Vienna Kuchkhergass Street, they had a senior son Ludwig. Eric studied in a Vienna elementary school. In 1939, the Kandela family was forced to leave Austria because of the persecution of the Hitler's regime. Eric and Ludwig left first in Belgium, and then in the US, where they could reunite with their parents.
In New York, the Kandela family settled in Brooklyn. Eric initially did not know English. It was decided to change his name to the American manner, rejecting the last letter: Eric. The pronunciation of the last name has changed. [The source is not specified 1432 days] visited the State Primary School No. 217, then the Jewish School in Flatbusch (Eng. Yeshivah of Flatbush), then the State Secondary School of Erasmus Hall (Erasmus Hall High School). He wrote notes for the school newspaper, was fond of sports.
Universities
In 1944, Eric Candell arrived at Harvard University, where he studied the history and literature of modern Europe. Interested in the works of Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis - this is exactly what he pushed him to the study of psychiatry. In 1952, he entered the University of New York Medical School. In the autumn of 1955, internship was internship at the Harry Grundfesta laboratory in Columbia University, where he learned to put experiments on separate nerve cells. In June 1956, he married Denise Bistren, in the same year he passed an internship on psychiatry in the New York clinic Montefiore. The residency was held at the Massachusetts Center for the Mental Health of the Harvard Medical School in 1960-62.
From 1957 to 1960, he worked in the laboratory Wade Marshall at the National Institute of Mental Health, it was at that time Kendel came to choose to choose an Applica (Aplysia Californica) as an object for his experiments. In September 1962, Kandele moved to Paris to explore the nerve cells of the Apliax in the Tapet's laboratory, and in 1965 publishes the first results of these studies.
Awards and Recognition
1983 - Dixon Prize
1983 - Albert Lasker award for fundamental medical research, "For the Application Of Cell Biology Techniques to the Study of Behavior, Revealing Mechanisms underlying Learning and Memory."
1986 - Silliman Lecture
1987 - International Prize Gayrinner, "For Elucidating The Mechanisms of Learning and Memory in Nerve Cells."
1988 - National US Scientific Medal in the Nomination "Biological Sciences", "For Discovering The First Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Contributing to Simple Learning and Memory."
1988 - Nan United States Award for Scientific Review, "For His Relating Findings in Simple Systems to Those Obtained in Higher Forms to Those Obtained in Higher Forms, Which Have Greatly Influenced Modern Study of the Cellular Basis of Learning."
1988 - Jean-Louis-Signoret-Preis
1988 - Pasarow Award
1993 - Harvey Prize, In Recognition of His Unique and Fundamental Contribution to the Explication of the Cellular and Molecular Basis of Learning and Memory. »
1997 - Pour Le Mérite Für Wissenschaften Und Künste
1997 - Ralph Gerard Award
1999 - Wolf Premium Medicine, "For the elucidation of the Organismic, Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Whereby Short-Term Memory Is Converted to A Long-Term Form."
2000 - Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine (together with Arvid Karlsson and Paul Greenard), "For discoveries related to transmission of signals in the nervous system."
2000 - Heinexen Premium Medicine, "For His Pioneering Research On The Molecular Mechanisms underlying Learning Processes and Memory."
2005 - Austrian Honorary Sign "For Science and Art"
2006 - Benjamin Franklin's Medal
2006 - Book Prize Newspapers "Los Angeles Times"
2008 - Victor Frankl Prize
2008 - Honorary Citizen Vienna
2012 - Large Officer Cross 2 degrees of the Order of Honor for Merit to Austria
2012 - Bruno Kravsky Prize for the Political Book
In 2000, American neurobiologist Eric Candell, together with his two colleagues, Paul Greenard and Arvid Carlsson, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine - "For opening related to the transmission of signals in the nervous system."
In the book "In search of memory", released on the Russian Publishing House Corpus, Candel describes in detail his life and a scientific career dedicated to the study of memory. The most important point of this career, for decades, determined its development, was the selection of an object for the experiment.
In the late fifties, Candela, a completely young scientist, most interested in the question of the biological basis of the learning process, memorization. He was convinced that they need to explore them at the level of individual cells, working with the simplest forms of behavior - reflexes.
At Candela left half a year in search of the perfect organism. Mammals did not fit - too complicated nervous system. It was necessary to choose from invertebrates. But if Candela colleagues experimented with crayfish, lobster, bees, flies, worms, or snail, he chose the molluscia for himself.
For the first time, Applica was described in antiquity, calling it a marine hare (for the remote similarity with a chopping eared beast).
Some ancient naturalists considered the Sacred Animals Application - very impressive their reaction to the threat: a disturbed aplishment abundantly allocates a bright purple liquid similar to ink.
For Candela, it was a radical instinctive choice. At that time, the approxia was studied in detail only two biologists, and both lived in France. Their experience was Candela needed, so he had to leave the National Institutes of Health in the United States, where he had successfully worked at that time, and move to another continent.
But the decision was justified. The fact is that the nervous system of Apliax is simple and consists of a small number of cells. At the same time, the cells are very large - some are visible even with a naked eye. Thus, the scientist could make a map of the entire system of neural chains, manageing one or another form of mollusk behavior.
Candele found an object on which many years spent the most important studies of learning and memory formation processes:
It turned out that work with aplisia as an experimental object is not only surprisingly informative, but also delivers a lot of pleasure. My relationship with the aplisia, which began with passionate hobbies generated by the hope of finding an animal suitable for research, has been redeemed into a serious connection.
In this article we will talk about the basic discoveries and experimental confirmations of neurophysiological theories that managed to make thanks to the study of the Appliance.
Candela can be fully considered a follower of the famous domestic physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. The first experiments with the aplisia were similar to Pavlovski - with the help of artificial sensory stimuli, the Candell sought from the mollusk change behavior. With the only difference that the behavior of the mammal, even the reflex, is much more difficult, it is so difficult, and the Candell could show that the change in behavior occurs at the level of individual neural connections.
Apliance breathes with the help of the gills and to protect them reflexively draws them. All aplyisius for it corresponds to the same neurons. It would seem that such a simple behavior in a healthy body is always equally. But it turned out that this is not:
with repeated touchs to the surface of the skin of the mollusk, the amplitude of the reflexing of gills gradually decreases, and the relationship between neurons involved in the reflex has weakened - this is the effect addiction;
when shuffles causing increased sensitivity ( sensibilization) in the mollusk, the reflex drawing the gills intensified, the connection between neurons was also intensified;
alternating touch and blows (weak and strong irritation), Candel achieved the fact that the Apliax had their association - the mollusk began to strongly pull the gills even with weak irritation - it is classic conditioned reflex.
The neurons of the Apliax are united in nine nerve knots - ganglia. Reactions associated with the reflexes of the gills of the gills occur in a large abdominal ganglia
What does this mean? Mollusk has simple behavioral analogues of complex forms of behavior that characterize the learning from mammals, including a person. Apliasia. i remembered your experienceAnd her reflex drawing the gills worked in different ways depending on the previous irritation.
How exactly does the reflex draw the gills of the gills in the mollusk? Thanks to the simple structure of the Appliance, Kandela managed to understand the mechanism of this reaction. It turned out that there are two different types of neurons - sensory neurons in which the potential of action occurs during irritation, and the motor, in which response potentials arise, which leads to the gybro.
As a result of addiction to the stimulus or, on the contrary, the increase in sensitivity changed between the sensory neuron and the motorhone - the efficiency of signaling between them was reduced or intensified.
The learning process in living beings does not occur in some particular neuron, but within a sustainable connection between the two neurons. Such a connection, the connection of neurons is called sinaps.
In its simplest forms, training chooses from a wide repertoire of predetermined bonds and changes the force of a certain subset of these links.
Eric Candel, Neurobiologist, Nobel laureate
Summing up the results of the first experiments with the aplisia in the magazine, Candel stressed that the use of methods for the development of conditional reflexes may allow to explore and more complex forms of behavior change. And it turned out to be right.
Our memory is divided into short-term and long-term. The first is quite a small amount - this is what we took over the past, let's say, half a minute, and then they have forgotten safely. The fact that we remember is postponed in long-term memory, for which a new protein is synthesized in the brain.
But, as it turned out, it's not just in protein. Experiments on the Apliax have shown that in the process of learning in the nervous system, the number of neural connections is changed.
When forming long-term memory, neurons grow new endings, new ties acquire, strengthen the old. And if you repeatedly call the nervous system, then neurons, on the contrary, draw the existing endings, and their bonds become inactive.
Thus, training leads to constant physiological changes in the nervous system. On the example of the aplisia, it looked like this: during the experiment, the mollusk learned to react to the attachment of the same force to touch the same force, and if at first only the gills retractped, then she also began to launch ink.
This means that under the influence of irritation, the connection of the sensory neuron was intensified not only with a motorion that is responsible for the gills, but also with the ink motoryron. Since the Apliax had the memory of a reinforced reaction to touch, the touch neuron at regular irritation began to give a strengthened signal at once with two motnelones - and the animal began to behave differently.
In the 90s, experiments were carried out, which recorded constant changes in the somatosensory cortex of the brain as a result of training first in monkeys, and then in humans.
In particular, it was found that the violinists and cello the area of \u200b\u200bthe cortex corresponding to the fingers of the left hand, which they clamp the strings are twice as much as in the brain of the nomizkant. In addition, those who play on strings from childhood, this area is developed better than those who began to play in adolescence and later - in childhood our brain is more plastic. By the way, the area responsible for the fingers of the right hand is not so evolving, because they perform a simpler job - hold the bow.
According to Candela, he and his colleagues, exploring the approxiance at the level of synaptic connections, only "paved the way on the outer circles of the scientific labyrinth." The new task of a scientist was to determine exactly how these synaptic changes in the molecular level occur.
Unfortunately, the format of this short article does not allow us to explain the results of the study in all details. Even a schematic description of the memorization mechanism looks difficult:
In fact, this scheme has become the last chord, after which the question of awarding the Nobel Prize Kandela and colleagues was a matter of solved
It is greatly simplifying, it can be said that thanks to the new experiments, a third member of the process of formation of memories was discovered - modulator interneurone. It highlights serotonin- Neuromediator, known as the "hormone of happiness" for its soothing effect on the brain area. There are serotonin and from the apliance, and it is with his help that the most strengthening of the synaptic connection between the sensory and the motor neuron is happening, which we have said earlier.
The rest of the scheme at the molecular level is approximately as follows. The end of the sensory neuron produces a signaling substance that activates the regulatory protein - proteinkinase A.. This protein creates the conditions for the emission of another neuromediator - glutamataproviding an exciting effect in our brain. While this reaction is active, we have (as well as an expensive aplish) there is a short-term memory effect.
When the reaction is repeated constantly (for example, constant irritation at the Appliance), proteinkinase and becomes a lot, it penetrates the sensory neuron core. With this, the latest important element of memory formation is activated. creb protein. This protein regulates gene expression and changes the structure of nerve cells at the genetic level. Hence the growth of new neural endings, which provides change behavior and long-term memory.
During the experiments, scientists blocked the work of the Creb protein, and one thing was enough to prevent the formation of long-term memory, while the short-term worked as before.
Multiple blows current is an important experience for the Apliax, just as the ability to play the piano or hide the French verbs can be an important experience for us: the repetition is the mother of the teachings, because it is necessary for long-term memory.
Eric Candel, Neurobiologist, Nobel laureate
Of course, it emphasizes Candel, this principle has a lot of exceptions. For example, traumatic or unusually emotional experience allows us to bypass the usual scheme and record the whole picture of memories quickly.
In secret: This is because there are proteins in the body that turn off the mechanisms for suppressing gene expression and allow genetic changes faster. But this is probably the next time.
Eric Candel
In search of memory
The emergence of a new science about the human psyche
Preface
To understand the biological nature of the human psyche - the key task of science of the XXI century. We strive to understand the biological nature of perception, training, memory, thinking, consciousness and limits of freedom of will. A few decades ago it seemed unthinkable that biologists would have the opportunity to study these phenomena. Until the middle of the 20th century, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe fact that the deepest secrets of the human psyche, the most complex system of phenomena in the universe, can be accessible to biological analysis, possibly even at the molecular level, it was impossible to take seriously.
Impressive achievements in the field of biology of the last fifty years have made it possible. Perfect by James Watson and Francis Cryk in 1953, the discovery of the DNA structure made a revolution in biology, providing it with a rational basis for studying how the information recorded in genes, manages the work of the cell. This discovery made it possible to understand the fundamental principles of regulating generation of genes - as genes provide synthesis of proteins that determine the functioning of cells, like genes and proteins turn on and off during the development of the body, determining its structure. When these outstanding achievements remained behind, biology, along with physics and chemistry, took a central place in the constellation of natural sciences.
Armed with new knowledge and confidence, Biology rushed towards its highest goal - to understand the biological nature of the human psyche. Work in this direction, for a long time considered unscientific, is already in full swing. Moreover, when historians of science will consider the last two decades of the 20th century, they will most likely pay attention to an unexpected fact: the most valuable discoveries of that time relating to the human psyche were received not within the disciplines that traditionally worked in this area, such as Philosophy, psychology or psychoanalysis. They become possible due to the merger of these disciplines with the biology of the brain - a new synthetic discipline, which bloomed thanks to the impressive achievements of molecular biology. As a result, a new mental science arose, using the possibilities of molecular biology for the study of the great secrets of life.
The basis of the new science is five principles. The first is that our psyche is inseparable from the brain. The brain is a complex, which has huge computing abilities in the biological body, which forms sensations, regulates thoughts and feelings and manages actions. The brain responds not only for relatively simple forms of motor behavior, such as running or eating, but also for those complex actions in which we see the quintessence of human nature: thinking, speech or creating works of art. In this aspect, the human psyche appears the system of operations performed by the brain, almost the same as walking is a system of operations performed by the legs, only in the case of the brain, the system is much more complicated.
The second principle is that each mental function of the brain, from the simplest reflexes to the most creative forms of activity in the field of language, music and visual art, is performed by specialized neural chains passing in various parts of the brain. Therefore, the biology of the human psyche is better denoted by the term Biology of Mind, pointing to a system of mental operations performed by these chains than the term Biology of the Mind, which implies some location of our psyche and assume that we have a certain place in which all mental is performed in the brain. Operations.
The third principle: all these chains are composed of the same elementary signal units - nerve cells (neurons). Fourth: In neural circuits to generate signals inside the nerve cells and transmission between cells, the molecules of special substances are used. And the last principle: these specific signaling molecules are evolutionary conservative, that is, they remain unchanged for millions of years of evolution. Some of them were present in the cells of our ancient ancestors and can be discovered today in the most distant and evolutionarly primitive relatives - single-cell organisms, such as bacteria and yeast, and simple multicellular organisms of the type of worms, flies and snails. To successfully maneuver in its habitat, these creatures use molecules of the same substances as we to manage their daily life and adapt to the environment.
Thus, the new science of the psyche not only opens the path to the knowledge of themselves (as we perceive the surrounding, learn, remember, feel and act), but also makes it possible to look at yourself in the context of biological evolution. It makes it possible to understand that the human psyche developed on the basis of substances used by our primitive ancestors, and that the extraordinary conservatism of molecular mechanisms regulating a variety of life processes is also peculiar to our psyche.
Due to how much the biology of the psyche can do for our personal and social well-being, the scientific community today is unanimously: this discipline will become for the XXI century the same than for the XX century the biology of the gene became.
In addition to the fact that the new science of the psyche appeals to the key issues that occupied the minds of Western thinkers since more than two thousand years ago, Socrates and Plato were first to argue about the nature of mental processes, it also discovers the opportunity to deal with important for our daily life. issues relating to the psyche. Science has ceased to be the prerogative of scientists. Now she is an integral part of modern life and culture. The media almost every day transmit a special nature information, almost available to understand the general public. People read about the loss of memory caused by Alzheimer's disease, and about the so-called age-related memory loss and are trying to understand, often unsuccessfully, the difference between these two disorders, of which the first inexorably progresses and leads to death, and the second refers to relatively light ailments. They hear about nootropic drugs, but poorly imagine what to expect from them. They are said that the genes affect the behavior and that violations in these genes cause mental diseases and neurological disorders, but they do not say how it happens. Finally, people read that the differences in the abilities associated with the floor affect the education and career of men and women. Does this mean that the female brain is different from male?
