The political organization of the Company is a set of organizations involved in the political life of the country, in regulating relations between the main social groups of the Company (classes, nations, professional strata). The political organization of the Company consists of their two main components: states as the main, central level of the political organization of the Company; public political associations (parties, trade unions, national and professional organizations). State power is political, since it concentrates and expresses the interests of the main social groups and coordinates the activities of all subjects of the Company. By nature, the state occupies a leading, central place in the political system, is the main instrument of politics. In addition to the state, the political system of society includes a variety of public associations (political parties, trade unions, religious, female, youth, national and other organizations). They consolidate the interests of individual social groups and sectors of society. The main task of political public associations is the impact on the state, on its policies through the election of representatives into elected state bodies, through the media, public opinion. As part of a pluralistic political system, there are various political associations that have equal opportunities for participation in the political life of the country. In the monistic political system, one political association is allocated, which plays a major role in the political life of the country. In the dependence of the political regime created by state power, the political system may be a democratic, when the political associations recognize the broad rights to participate in the formation of public policy. The opposite is an authoritarian political system, where the role of political associations is negligible, or their activities are generally prohibited.
Totalitarian regime
Totalitarianism (from lat. totalitas. - Oftyness, fullness) is characterized by the state's desire to absolutely control over all regions of public life, complete submission of a person of political power and the dominant ideology. The concept of "totalitarianism" was introduced into the turnover by the ideologist of the Italian fascism J. Gentile at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1925, this word first sounded in the Italian parliament in the speech of the leader of the Italian fascism B. Mussolini. Since that time, the formation of a totalitarian regime in Italy begins, then in the USSR (in the years of Stalinism) and in Hitler's Germany (since 1933).
In each of the countries where the totalitarian regime arose and developed, he had its own characteristics. At the same time, there are general features characteristic of all forms of totalitarianism and reflecting its essence. These include the following:
single Party - Mass party with a tough semi-counter structure, applying to complete subordination of its members of the faith symbols and their expressives - leaders, the management as a whole, grips with the state and concentrates real power in society;
nedamocratic way to organize a party - It is built around the leader. Power goes down - from the leader, and not up -
from the masses;
ideological all society. Totalitarian regime is an ideological regime, where there is always its own "Bible". The ideology that the political leader determines includes a series of myths (on the leading role of the working class, about the superiority of the Aryan race, etc.). Totalitarian society leads the widest ideological processing of the population;
monopole control production and economics, as well as all other spheres of life, including education, media, etc.;
terrorist police control. In this regard, concentration camps and ghetto are created, where difficult labor, torture is used, massacres are taking place in any innocent people. (So, in the USSR, a whole network of camps was created - GULAG. Until 1941, it included 53 camps, 425 correctional colonies and 50 minors). With the help of power and punitive organs, the state controls the life and behavior of the population.
In all the diversity of the reasons and conditions for the appearance of totalitarian political regimes, a deep role is played by a deep crisis. Among the main conditions for the occurrence of totalitarianism, many researchers call the Company's entry into the industrial stage of development, when the possibilities of media contributing to the universal ideology of society and establish control over personality are sharply increasing. The industrial stage of development contributed to the emergence of the ideological prerequisite of totalitarianism, for example, the formation of a collectivist consciousness based on the superiority of collective over individual. The political conditions that are also important to: the emergence of a new mass party, a sharp strengthening of the role of the state, the development of various types of totalitarian movements. Totalitarian modes are capable of changing, evolving. For example, after the death of Stalin, the USSR has changed. Board N.S. Khrushchev, L.I. Brezhnev is the so-called postatalitarianism - a system in which totalitarianism loses part of its elements and as it would be blurred, weakened. So, totalitarian regime should be divided into a purely totalitarian and post-hundredthlyitarian.
Depending on the dominant ideology, totalitarianism is usually divided into communism, fascism and national socialism.
Communism (Socialism) More than other types of totalitarianism, expresses the main features of this system, since it implies the absolute government of the state, the complete elimination of private property and, therefore, any autonomy of the personality. Despite the mostly totalitarian forms of a political organization, the socialist system inherent and humane political goals. For example, the level of education of the people has sharply increased in the USSR, it has become accessible to the achievements of science and culture, the social security of the population has been ensured, the economy, space and military industry developed, and so on, the crime rate has declined sharply. In addition, for decades, the system almost did not resort to mass repression.
Fascism - The rightExtremist political movement arising in the situation of revolutionary processes that covered the countries of Western Europe after the First World War and the victory of the revolution in Russia. For the first time, it was installed in Italy in 1922, the Italian fascism sought to revive the greatness of the Roman Empire, to establish a procedure, solid state power. Fascism claims to restore or purify the "People's Soul", providing collective identity on cultural or ethnic soil. By the end of the 1930s, fascist regimes were established in Italy, Germany, Portugal, Spain and a number of Eastern and Central Europe. With all its national peculiarities, fascism was the same everywhere: he expressed the interests of the most reactionary circles of capitalist society, which provided fascist movements financial and political support seeking to use them to suppress the revolutionary performances of the working masses, preserving the existing system and implement their imperial ambitions in the international arena.
Third type of totalitarianism - national Socialism.As a real political and social system, it arose in Germany in 1933. His goal is the world domination of the Aryan race, and social preference - German nation. If in the communist systems, aggressiveness is aimed primarily against its own citizens (class enemy), then in National Socialism - against other peoples.
Nevertheless, totalitarianism is a historically doomed system. This is a self-seed society that is not capable of efficient creation, maternity, initiative economic management and is mainly due to rich natural resources, operation, consumption restrictions most population. Totalitarianism is a closed society that is not adapted to high-quality updates, accounting for new requirements of a continuously changing world.
One of the most common stories in the history of the political system is authoritarianism. In its characteristic features, he occupies an intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy. With totalitarianism, his relatives are usually autocratic, not limited to the nature of power, with democracy - the availability of autonomous, non-governmental public areas, especially economics and private life, the preservation of civil society elements. Authoritarian regime is a boarding system at which power is carried out by one specific person with minimal participation of the people. This is one of the forms of political dictatorship. The role of the dictator is an individual politician from the elite environment or the ruling elite group.
avtocratism (Selfhood) - a small number of carriers of power. They may be one person (monarch, tyrant) or group of persons (military junta, oligarchic group, etc.);
unlimited powerHer irrecipant citizens. Power may rule with the help of laws, but they take them at its discretion;
support (real or potential) for strength. Authoritarian regime may not resort to mass repression and enjoy popular among the wide segments of the population. However, it has sufficient strength so that if necessary, to force citizens to obedience;
monopolization of power and politics, preventing political opposition and competition. With authoritarianism, it is possible to exist a limited number of parties, trade unions and other organizations, but only subject to their control
authorities;
refusal of total control over society, non-interference in non-political spheres, and above all in the economy. The government is mainly involved in ensuring their own security, social order, defense, foreign policy, although it can affect the strategy of economic development, to conduct a rather active social policy, without destroying the mechanisms of market self-government;
recruitment (formation) of the political eliteby introducing the electoral body of new members without additional elections, the appointment from above, and not as a result of the competitive electoral struggle.
Based on the above authoritarianism - political regime, in which unlimited power is concentrated in the hands of one person or group of persons. Such power does not allow the political opposition, but retains the autonomy of the individual and society in all non-political spheres.
Authoritarian modes are preserved using the device forcing and violence - army. Power, submission and order are appreciated under authoritarian regime of reigns more than freedom, consent and participation of the people in political life. In such conditions, ordinary citizens are forced to pay taxes, obey the laws without personal participation in their discussion. The weaknesses of authoritarianism are a complete dependence of policies from the position of the head of state or a group of senior managers, the absence of opportunities for citizens to prevent political adventures or arbitrariness, limited political expression of public interest.
Democratic real-power democratic institutions in the authoritarian states do not have. A political monopoly of one batch that supports the mode is legal; The activity of other political parties and organizations is excluded. The principles of constitutionality and legality denied. It is ignored by the separation of the authorities. There is a strict centralization of all state power. The head of state and government becomes the leader of the ruling authoritarian party. Representative bodies at all levels turn into a scenery covering authoritarian power.
Authoritarian regime provides the power of individual or collective dictate by any means, including direct violence. At the same time, authoritarian power does not interfere in those areas of life that are not directly related to politics. Relatively independent can remain economics, culture, interpersonal relationships, i.e. In limited framework, civil society institutions are functioning.
The advantage of an authoritarian regime is a high ability to provide political stability and public order, mobilize public resources to solve certain tasks, overcome the resistance of political opponents, as well as the ability to solve progressive tasks associated with the country's output from the crisis. Thus, authoritarianism was the desired regime in a number of countries after the Second World War, against the background of the world's acute economic and social contradictions existed in the world.
Authoritarian regimes are very diverse. One species is military Dictatorial Mode. It survived the majority of Latin America countries, South Korea, Portugal, Spain, Greece. Another kind of variety is theocratic regimeIn which the power is concentrated in the hands of the religious clan. Such a mode exists in Iran since 1979 Constitutional authoritarian The mode is characterized by focusing the power in the hands of one party in the formal existence of a multi-party system. This is a mode of modern Mexico. For despotic regime It is characteristic that the highest leader relies on arbitrariness and informal clan, family structures. Another kind of variety is personal tyrannyIn which the authorities belong to the leader and there are no strong institutions (the regime of S. Hussein in Iraq until 2003, M. Gaddafi regime in modern Libya). Another category of authoritarian regimes - absolute monarchy (Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia).
In modern conditions, "pure" authoritarianism, which does not rely on active mass support and some democratic institutions, can hardly be a tool for progressive reform of society. He is able to turn into a criminal dictatorial regime of personal power.
In recent years, there are a lot of non-democratic (totalitarian and authoritarian) regimes or transformed into a democratic republic or a state on a democratic basis. The overall lack of undemocratic political systems is that they are not unemployed by the people, and therefore the nature of their relationships with citizens depends primarily from the will of the rulers. In the past century, the possibility of arbitrariness from authoritarian rulers has significantly restrained the traditions of government, relatively high education and the educationalness of monarchs and aristocracy, their self-control on the basis of religious and moral codes, as well as the opinion of the church and the threat of popular uprisings. In the modern era, these factors either disappeared at all, or their effects strongly weakened. Therefore, only the democratic form of government can guarantee the protection of citizens from state arrangement. Those peoples who are ready for freedom and responsibility, respect for the law and human rights, democracy really gives the best opportunities for individual and social development, the implementation of humanistic values: freedom, equality, justice, social creativity.
Democracy
(Greek. DEMOKRATíA, literally - democracy, from DEMOS - the people and Krátos - power)
the form of the political organization of the Company, based on the recognition of the people as a source of government, to participate in its right to participate in solving public affairs and exercise citizens with a fairly wide range of rights and freedoms. D. In this regard, it is primarily as a form of state. Term "D." They are also used in relation to the organization and activities of other political and social institutions (for example, Party D., Production D.), as well as to characterize the respective public movements, political courses, the currents of socio-political thought.
So, democracy, as a system of democracy, is a universal basis for the political development of mankind in the modern era. The experience of this development allows you to allocate several forms of democracy:
Direct democracy is a form of democracy, based on making political decisions directly by all citizens without exception (for example, during a referendum).
Plebiscitar democracy is a form of democracy with strong authoritarian trends, in which the leader of the regime uses the approval of the masses as the main means of legitimizing its political decisions. The historical predecessor of the straight and plebiscitar democracy was so-called. "Military Democracy", based on elements of a tribal and community building.
Representative, or pluralistic democracy - the form of democracy, in which citizens participate in making political decisions not personally, but through their representatives elected by them and responsible before them.
Value democracy is a kind of representative democracy, within which the election law (as the main right, guaranteeing participation in the political process) belongs to a limited range of citizens. Depending on the nature of the restrictions, the valuation of democracy may be elite (incl. Liberal sense), class (proletarian, bourgeois democracy).
3. Principles (signs) of democracy
Democracy is a rather complicated, developing phenomenon. Its essential side remains unchanged, it is constantly enriched with new elements, acquires new properties, quality.
In the political science literature there are several fundamental signs that give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe essence of democracy.
1) Democracy is based on the completeness of the people in all spheres of society.Although this feature, like others, is not so easily determined, nevertheless, democracy is expressed in direct, direct democracy and representative democracy. In most modern democracies, democracy finds its expression through the free elections of the representatives of the people.
2) for democracy it is characteristic that the will of the people occurs as a result of regularly conducted, honest, competitive, free elections. This means that any party, the group must have equal chances in relation to others, have the same opportunities to compete with each other in the struggle for power.
3) For democracy should be mandatory government replacingSo that the government of the country is formed as a result of elections. Only one regular election is not enough to characterize democracy. In many countries in Latin America, Africa, the government and president are removed from power through a military coup, and not on the basis of elections. Therefore, for democracy, the government's change is not characterized not at the request of the survival of the general, but as a result of free elections.
4) Democracy provides for the admission to the political scene in the struggle for the power of opposition, various political flows, ideologies. Different parties, political groups put forward their programs, defend their ideological attitudes.
5) Democracy is directly related to constitutionalism, the primacy of the law in society. Democracy and legal state are inextricably linked concepts.
6) Democratic is considered such a sign as protection of the rights of citizens and minority rights. The protection of the rights of the minority, the lack of discriminatory measures towards it, the guarantee of individual rights and freedoms - these are the attributes of democracy.
7) during democracy takes place distribution of power, separation of its legislative, executive and judicial. Although this sign is not so obvious, since the separation of the authorities may not under democracy, yet the dispersal of power can be an indicator of democracy.
8) there are still several non-fundamental principles of democracy, for example openness, publicity, rationality.
Contradictions and dead end of democracy.
P. K. Nestorov
Recently, attentive readers began to notice the participating appearance of critical articles and notes towards democracy in serious international newspapers, and even critical books on the same topic. Obviously, in this political instrument, in his accurately familiar form, too many contradictions began to manifest, often starting in dead end.
The emergence of the expression "democracy" coincides with the emergence of political sciences in ancient Greece, when for the first time Plato, and his student Aristotle establishes the first classification of political regimes. In the classic classification of Aristotle, six political regimes, "Democracy" occupies the fourth place, immediately after three "right" ("Orfas") regimes (monarchy, aristocracy and politics), and on the first, best, place among three distorted ("Paracsis") modes (democracy, oligarchy and tyranny), which are deviations from the correct. After the French Revolution, in translations from the Greek to the French language "Politicians" Aristotle, in which this classification repeats many times and is extensive extensive, several terminological travelers have been made.
Where in the Greek original it is said about the third right mode, in a Greek called "Politia" (Politeia) The word "democracy" was delivered in French translations, although since the time of Cicero there was a translation of this word to Latin, as the "Republic". Absurded absurd, for Aristotle and all the ancient Greek and Byzantine authors, the expression "democracy" is indicated by distortion "Policy" siren "republic". So democracy can not be a synonym for the regime, the deviation or distortion of which it, in its definition, is.
At the same time, the second problem arose: if you remove the expression of "democracy" from its original place in a number of distorted political regimes to put it in a row of the right, then it is necessary to somehow fill its place that turned out to be empty. For this, another Greek word was taken: "Demagogy". However, the Greek authors have the word "demagogy" by no means the name of any political regime, but only the designation of one of the poor qualities of two distorted regimes: tyranny and democracy (politics, 1313 B). "Demagogy" is literally "driving a people."
The French revolution needed some kind of designation of his own regime, the designation opposing the previous "old regime" of the monarchy and at the same time differing from the other two right regimes: aristocracy and republic. The aristocracy was a partner of the abolished monarchy and were subject to guillotine, and the republic was recently exhaustively determined by the French political scientist Count Montesquieu as blend and combinationmonarchy, aristocracy and democracy, so that she also did not fit for a new building.
These terminological travelers were then mechanically transferred to translations and other languages, including Spanish. Only in 1970 in Spain was published "Politics" of Aristotle in a new scientific translating, with bilingual text and with great explanatory entry of one of their two translators, the famous philosopher Juliana Marias. However, during this time new meaningthis ancient word has already entered into widespread use throughout the world, acquiring this automatically the right to new existence and on new use, for new needs and for new functions. True, in the enlightened circles of the West almost until the end of the 19th century, the memory of the initial, genuine value of the expression, as evidenced by the English publicist Robert Moss, remained more or less vaguely. It is possible that that is why this term was not included in the new Constitution of the New World, primarily in the US Constitution, given its etymological incompatibility with the expression "Republic".
In all, it was undoubtedly a positive side, because such a crowdation of this concept turned it into a very convenient political label, useful for the designation of new political necessities.
So, during World War II, this name began to designate a different coalition against the Axis of Germany - Italy - Japan. This coalition included very controversial political regimes, which somehow had to be denoted by one common name for them. When then, with the beginning of the so-called "Cold War", this coalition split down, both sides continued to claim this label, up to the fact that it was included inthe names of some countries, even still preserved.
Over time, all state regimes in the world began to claim this political label of "democracy", because it actually began to denote simply modern state.So, above mentionedspanish philosopher Julian Marias about twenty years ago indicated that if all modern states in the world officially consider themselves democratic, then in this case this definition does not matter anything. This was terminological deadlock: After the etymological meaning of this term is a systematic forgery, it has largely lost its new meaning, created by these worms.
Of course, measures are being taken to save this terminological instrument, on the creation and general implementation of which so many forces and funds were spent. For this, first of all, it is necessary to limit the number of legitimate applicants for this name. Recently, US President George Bush, at a meeting with the veteran organization "American Legion", said that in the early 1980s, there were only 45 "democratic states" in the world, and today their number has increased to 122 states. (In the United Nations today, about 200 states are listed).
In this case, the inevitable question arises: what an unequivocal criterion must be applied in order to lay the "democratic states" from non-democratic. The easiest and most faithful method for this would be a refund to the conventions of the Second World War: All states that are members of the coalitions in which the United States includes, are considered democracies, and all others are not considered. However, such a convenient criterion contradicts the long-term propaganda of two auxiliary concepts, for a long time declared indispensable prerequisites for democracy: elections and constitutions.
Here, new deadlocks were revealed: it turns out that there are countries with very well written constitutions and even with elections, but it is obvious that there is no democracy in them. And sometimes even on the contrary: democracy is obviously evident, but it is unprofitable to recognize that there is something in them.
For example, at the end of March of this year, German state television has repeatedly showed the first pages of German text recently written (where?) Constitution of Afghanistan on its screens. In its second paragraph, the religious freedom of all citizens of this country is approved, but in the third paragraph there is an inevitable concession to the real arrangement of real forces in Afghanistan: all laws must comply with the establishments of Islam. Among those, allegedly, there is a death penalty for all Muslims who have moved to another religion, which categorically contradicts the previous installation.
In the African State of Liberia, from the 19th century, there is an accurate copy of the "best" constitution, which allegedly is the US Constitution. However, this circumstance could not prevent wild massacre in this country.
Also, general elections in some countries sometimes do not provide minimal living conditions that could be comprehensively recognized by democratic. Unfortunately, there are many of the countries today in the world, but not all of their regimes are subject to universal condemnation and prospect, which are made mainly by looking at who they are in the coalition.
On the contrary, there are countries in which there are also constitutions and regularly elections are held. Moreover, the results of these elections are strikingly coincide with the results of democratic surveys. However, for some other reasons, they are authoritatively declared non-democratic. In such cases, it is openly preached by the need to replace the results of elections by open coups, to which colored labels are pretended: the red coup of Lenin and Trotsky, the coup of the "black shirts" of Mussolini, the coup of the red carnations of Portuguese colonels, the coup of orange scandards Yushchenko, and so on. In the latest cases, we are dealing with two dead end: impasses of elections and coup pulps. In such cases, it is necessary not only to determine the democraticness of the elections, but also the democraticness of the coups. By themselves, such definitions of democratic can not be democratic, nor in their form, nor by their own essence. In such cases, the SMM (mass manipulation means) is taken for business, to try to somehow cover contradictions and hide dead end, but this is also a democratic dead end: IMM is not chosen by anyone.
Therefore, it will be apparent to seek new options for this political instrument. In this case, we will be in a winning position, because in Russia it has long been one such option: cossack or cathedral democracy compatible with the monarchy as it was Throughout our history. Then the contradictions will be overcome and it will be possible to leave from the impickies.
Civil society - This is the scope of self-assessment of free citizens and voluntarily formed associations and organizations, independent of direct intervention and arbitrary regulation on the part of state power. According to the classic scheme, D. Easton, civil society acts as a filter of the requirements and support of society to the political system.
Developed civil society is the most important prerequisite for building a legal state and its equal partner.
Civil society is one of the phenomena of modern society, a set of non-political relations and social entities (groups, teams), combined with specific interests (economic, ethnic, cultural, and so on), implemented outside the sphere of activity of power-state structures and allowing to control the actions of the state machine.
2. Conditions for the existence of civil society.
The main condition for the active life of civil society is social freedom, democratic social management, the existence of the public policy of political activities and political discussions. Free citizen is the basis of civil society. Social freedom creates an opportunity for human self-realization in society.
An important condition for the functioning of civil society is the publicity and its associated high awareness of citizens, which makes it possible to actually evaluate the economic situation, see social problems and take steps to resolve them.
Finally, the fundamental condition for the successful functioning of civil society is the existence of relevant legislation and constitutional guarantees of its right to exist.
Consideration of the issues of the need and the possibility of the existence of civil society gives grounds to emphasize its functional characteristic. The main function of civil society is the most complete satisfaction of the material, social and spiritual needs of society.
Political process - This is a certain sequence of actions and interactions between political factors, which arises at a certain time in a certain space.
The political process is deployed in each country within the framework of the political system of society, as well as in regional and global scales. In society, it is carried out at the state level, in administrative and territorial areas, in the city and village. In addition, it acts inside various nations, classes, socio-demographic groups, political parties and public movements. Thus, the political process reveals superficial or depth changes in the political system, characterizes its transition from one of its state to another. Therefore, in general, the political process in relation to the political system reveals movement, dynamics, evolution, change in time and space.
The main stages of the political process express the dynamics of the development of the political system, starting with its constitution and subsequent reform. Its main content is associated with the preparation, adoption and execution at the appropriate level, the implementation of political and management decisions necessary for their correction, social and other controls during practical implementation.
The process of developing political decisions makes it possible to allocate in the content of the political process structural links, revealing its internal structure and nature:
The political process is inherent in interlacing and relationship:
Individuals and social groups that are within a certain political system are far from equally involved in the political process. Some are indifferent to politics, others participate in it from time to time, are third passionate about the political struggle. Even among those who play an active role in political events, only some gambling are striving for power.
It is possible to distinguish in the degree of increase in the participation of participation in the political process of the following groups: 1) the apolitical group, 2) voting in elections, 3) participating in the activities of political parties and other political organizations and the campaigns, 4) political careers and political leaders.
In contrast to the general political process, private political processes concern individual parties to political life. They differ from the general process with their structure, typology, development stages.
The structural elements of the private political process are the cause (or causes) of its occurrence, object, subject and purpose. The reason for the occurrence of a private political process is the emergence of a contradiction requiring permission. This may be a problem affecting the interests of a small group or the general public. For example, discontent with the tax system may initiate a legislative process by its change. The object of a private political process is a specific political problem, which caused its reason: 1) the emergence and need to implement any political interests; 2) the creation of new political institutions, parties, movements, etc.; 3) the reorganization of power structures, the creation of a new government; 4) organization of support for the existing political power. The subject of a private political process is its initiator: any authority, party, movement, or even an individual. It is necessary to determine the status of these subjects, their goals, resources and strategy of their actions. The purpose of the private political process is that for which the political process begins and develops. Knowledge of the goal makes it possible to estimate the reality of its achievement by weighing the resources that the participants in the process are placed.
The four components of the structures of the private political process give a general presentation about it. For a comprehensive study of the process, information is needed about a number of its characteristics: the number and composition of the participants, socio-political conditions and the form of the flow. The composition and number of participants in the process and their political orientation depends a lot. Private political processes are capable of covering the whole country and even a group of countries - for example, a movement for the prohibition of nuclear weapons, but may also have a small number of participants within the local area. From the socio-political conditions in which the process proceeds, the achievement of the goal is largely dependent. The form of a private process can be cooperation or struggle to carry out the process. The combination of private political processes of each country is the process of its political development. Depending on the prevailing trends, they can be divided into two types. For the first characteristic of the predominance of changes in the existing political system, its update or even decomposition and organization of the new one. It can be defined as a type of modification. For another type, the predominance of the stability of the political system and its more or less efficient functioning is characteristic. It can be called a stabilization type.
Stages of development of the private political process.
All private political processes, despite their diversity, pass in their development through three stages. Each particular political process begins with the emergence of a problem. At the first stage, the forces interested in solving it are determined, their positions and opportunities are clarified, solutions to this problem are developed. The second stage is the mobilization of forces to support the plan to solve the problem or various solution options. The process is completed with the passage of the third stage - the political structures of measures to solve the problem. There is another point of view, according to which any political process can be divided into five stages: 1) the formation of political priorities; 2) nomination of priorities on the proceeding process; 3) the adoption of political decisions on them; 4) implementation of decisions made; 5) understanding and evaluation of the results of solutions.
Typology of private political processes. Note the main criteria for their classification.
The scale of the private political process. There are processes within society and international processes. The latter are bilateral (between the two states) and multilateral (between many or even by all states of the world). Private political processes within society are divided into basic and local (peripheral). Within the framework of the first wide sections of the population at the national level, they come into relations with the authorities on lawmaking and making political decisions. The second reflect, for example, the development of local self-government, the formation of political parties, blocks, etc.
The nature of the relationship of society and power structures. Based on this criterion, private political processes are divided into stable and unstable. The first develops in a stable political environment with sustainable political decision-making and political mobilization mechanisms. They are characterized by such forms as dialogue, coordination, partnership, contract, consensus. Unstable processes arise and develop in the conditions of the crisis of the authorities and the political system as a whole and reflect the conflict of the interests of groups.
Private political processes differ in time and nature of the implementation, orientation of subjects for rivalry or cooperation, explicit or hidden form of flow. An explicit (open) political process is characterized by the fact that the interests of groups and citizens are systematically revealed in their public requirements for public authority, which openly accepts management decisions. The shadow process is based on the activities of hidden political institutions and government centers, as well as the requirements of citizens not expressed in formal form.
Political conflicts
1. The essence of political conflicts and their typology
Political conflict - a sharp clash of opposite parties, due to the mutual formation of various interests, views, goals in the process of acquiring, redistribution and the use of political power, mastering leading (key) positions in power structures and institutes, conquering the right to influence or access to the decision-making on the distribution of power and property in society. The theory of conflicts mainly developed in the 19th-20th centuries, their authors expressed three main approaches to the understanding and role of conflicts in society: the first - recognition of fundamental inevitability and infancy from life, leading the role of conflicts in public development; This direction is represented by G. Westser, L.Gamplovich, K.Marks, Mozka, L. Kozer, R.Darerendorf, K. Bullding, M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, V.I. Lenin, and others ; The second is the rejection of conflicts that manifest itself as wars, revolutions, class struggle, social experiments, recognition by their public development anomalies, causing instability, a violation of equilibrium in socio-economic and political systems; Supporters of this direction are E. Dürkheim, T. Parson, V.S.Soloviev, M.M. Kovalevsky, N.A. Bardyaev, P.A.Sorokin, I.A.Ilin; Third - consideration of the conflict as one of many types of social interaction and social contacts along with competition, solidarity, cooperation, partnership; Expressants of this direction to Zimmel, M. Deber, R.Park, Ch. Mills, B.N. Chicherin, and others. In the second half of the 20th century, the views on the conflict M. Duverzha (France), L. Kozeres received the greatest fame (USA), R. Dawarendorf (Germany) and K. Boulding (USA).
1.2. Causes of conflict
The most common cause of conflicts is an unequal position occupied by people in society, the disorder between the expectations, practical intentions and actions of people, incompatibility of claims of parties with the limited possibilities of their satisfaction. The causes of conflicts are also:
Responsive questions.
Lack of livelihoods ..
Consequence of ill-conceived policies.
Incomposition of individual and public interests.
Differences of intentions and deeds of individuals, social groups, parties.
Envy.
Hatred.
Racia, national and religious dislike and others.
Subjects of political conflict may be the state, classes, social groups, political parties, personalities.
Typology conflict
Functions of a political conflict
perform a stabilizing role and can lead to disintegration and destabilization of the Company;
contribute to resolving contradictions and renewal of society, and may entail the death of people and material losses;
stimulate the reassessment of values, ideals, accelerate or slow down the process of becoming new structures;
Provide the best cognition of conflict participants and can lead to crisis or loss of legitimacy of power.
Conflict functions can be positive and negative.
You can attribute to positive:
The function of the discharge of tension between antagonists. The conflict plays the role of the "last valve", the "tensile channel" of tension. Social life is exempt from accumulated passions;
Communicative and informational and binder function. During the collision, the parties will recognize each other more, can get closable to any common platform;
Stimulating function. The conflict acts on the driving force of social change;
Promoting the formation of socially necessary equilibrium. Their internal conflicts society constantly "stitches together";
The function of revaluation and changes of previous values \u200b\u200band norms of society.
The negative features of the conflict include the following:
the threat of the split of society;
unfavorable changes in power relations;
split in small-resistant social groups and international organizations;
unfavorable demographic processes and others.
Paths and methods of conflict resolution
The settlement involves the withdrawal of the incidence of the Parties to avoid the negative consequences of the conflict. However, the cause of the conflict is not eliminated, thereby preserving the likelihood of a new exacerbation of already settled relations. The resolution of the conflict provides for the exhaustion of the subject of the dispute, a change in the situation and circumstances, which would lead to relations to the partnership and would exclude the danger of recurring confrontation.
In the process of conflict management, it is important to take into account the stage of its formation and development: the accumulation of contradictions and the formation of the relations of the Parties; rise and escalation of preparation; actually conflict; Conflict resolution.
Conflict Management and Resolution
The domestic conflict can be resolved by one of the following images: revolution; public coup; settlement through negotiations of conflicting parties; foreign intervention; political consent of the conflicting parties in the face of the external threat; compromise; consensus, etc.
By the permission of the interstate political conflict, there may be: a diplomatic settlement by negotiation; change political leaders or regimes; achieving a temporary compromise; war.
A special form of a political conflict is an inter-element conflict.
As factors, the emergence of an interethnic conflict can be considered: a certain level of national self-consciousness, sufficient to ensure that the people can realize the abnormality of their position; accumulation in the society of the dangerous critical mass of real problems and deformations affecting all Parties to National Being; The presence of specific political forces capable of using the first first factors in the struggle.
Ethnic conflicts, as a rule, are completed: the victory of one side over another (solution from the position of force); mutual defeat (compromise); mutual winnings (consensus).
The main methods of preventing and permitting interethnic conflicts are: "avoiding", "postponement", negotiations, arbitration (arbitration), reconciliation.
We highlight the two most common ways of reconciliation of the parties:
1. Peaceful conflict resolution
2. Reconciliation based on coercion
2. Military conflict as a special form of political conflict
Military conflict is any armed clash as a form of resolution of contradictions between opposite parties (states, coalitions of states, social groups, etc.).
Military conflict prevention measures: Political and diplomatic: Economic: ideological: Military:
2. Political conflicts in modern Russian society: the origins, development dynamics, the features of regulation
Political conflicts in today's Russia have such features: first, these are conflicts in the field of power itself for the possession of real government leverage; Secondly, the role of power in conflicts arising in non-political spheres, but, one way or another, directly or indirectly affect the foundations of the existence of this power; Thirdly, the state almost always acts as an intermediary, an arbitrator.
We define the main types of political conflicts in Russia: between the legislative and executive branches of the government in the process of the establishment of the institute of the presidency; between elites of financial and industrial groups; in-parliamentary; between the parties; Inside the state administrative apparatus.
The political crisis is the state of the political system of society, expressed in the deepening and exacerbation of the existing conflicts, in a sharp strengthening of political tensions.
In other words, the political crisis can be described as a break in the functioning of any system with a positive or negative outcome.
Political crises can be divided into foreign policy and internal political.
Political conflicts and crises correlate in such a way that the conflict may be the beginning of the crisis and the crisis can serve as the basis of conflict. Conflict in time and length may include several crises, and the set of conflicts can compile the content of the crisis.
Political crises and conflicts are disorganized, destabilize the situation, but at the same time serve as the beginning of a new ethane development in case of their positive permission. According to V. I. Lenin, "all sorts of crises reveal the essence of phenomena or processes, they will notice the surface, small, external, deeper the deeper basics of what is happening."
The general political process flows in three well-known forms: Evolution, revolution, crisis. Evolution - the main and most common form, meaning the gradual changes in the political system of the country: in the alignment of political forces, political mode (increasing democratic or anti-democratic trends), power structures, etc. Revolutionary form The development of the general political process means "a radical turn in the life of society, during which the state power is shifted and dominant forms of ownership." The political revolution is associated with violence, right up to an armed change of power. There is a rapid destruction of all political bodies, which, as a rule, is accompanied by numerous victims and tragedy of millions of people. Political crisis - loss of power control over the development of aggravated contradictions, weakening political institutions, weak manageability of the economy and other spheres, increasing discontent in society, etc. The reasons for the political crisis are mainly of economic and social character. Unlike the revolution, political crises rarely lead to a change of state system, but these are dramatic periods in the fate of society.
So, the overall political process reflects the dynamics of the political system of society as a whole, the change of its states and forms of the state device (the form of government, the methods of power, the national-territorial organization), as well as the political regime.
Structural elements private political process are the cause (or causes) of its occurrence, object, subject and purpose. The reason for the occurrence of a private political process- this is appearancecontradictions requiring permission. For example, discontent with the tax system may initiate a legislative process by its change. Private political process - This is a concrete political problemwhich caused it: 1) the emergence and need to implement any political interests; 2) the creation of new political institutions, parties, movements, etc.; 3) the reorganization of power structures, the creation of a new government; 4) organization of support for the existing political power. Subject of a private political process - This is his initiator: any authority, party, movement or even individual. It is necessary to determine the status of these subjects, their goals, resources and strategy of their actions. Purpose of the private political process - This is why the political process begins and develops. Knowledge of the goal makes it possible to estimate the reality of its achievement by weighing the resources that the participants in the process are placed.
It should be noted that the private political process does not necessarily arise in the political sphere. It can begin and develop in any sphere of society (economic, social, spiritual, cultural, etc.). If these areas themselves cannot resolve the contradictions that have arisen, then the problem, for example, is transformed into political.
For a comprehensive study of the process, information is needed about a number of its characteristics: the number and composition of the participants, socio-political conditions and the form of the flow.
All private political processes, despite their diversity, pass in their development through three stages. Each particular political process begins with the emergence of a problem. At the first stage, the forces interested in solving it are determined, their positions and opportunities are clarified, solutions to this problem are developed. The second stage is the mobilization of forces to support the plan to solve the problem or various solution options. The process is completed with the passage of the third stage - the political structures of measures to solve the problem. There is another point of view, according to which any political process can be divided into five stages: 1) the formation of political priorities; 2) nomination of priorities on the proceeding process; 3) the adoption of political decisions on them; 4) implementation of decisions made; 5) understanding and evaluation of the results of solutions.
Political power - the possibility and ability of policies to provide a decisive impact on the process of making political decisions, their implementation, as well as the political behavior of other participants in political relations.
Power is the basis of politics. B. Russell, determining the political power as the central category of political science, noted that it is so fundamental concept of any social science, as far as the fundamental concept of energy for physics. T. Parsons, considering power as a core of political relations, compares its importance in policies with a value that has money in the economic sphere.
Studying the phenomenon of power, political science uses two principal approaches: an attribute (substantial) and sociological (relational).
Supporters of an attribute approach (Lat. Ipiaio I give, endowed) explain the nature of the authorities by the biological and mental properties of the human psyche. So, from the point of view of the biological concept (M. Marseil), the government is an integral property of a person laid in its nature - instincts of the struggle, rivalry with other representatives of the human race. Based on this approach, F. Nietzsche argued that the desire for the possession of power, "will to power" acts as the basis of human life. Representatives of the psychological direction (based on psychoanalytic concepts) interpret the desire for power as a manifestation of sexual attraction (Z. Freud), mental energy in general (K.G. Jung), investigate structures in the psyche of a person who make it predisposed to submission, loss of freedom for the sake of sensation Safety, feelings of psychological comfort (E.Fromh), consider the desire to power as a way to compensate for physical or spiritual inferiority (K. Horney).
At the junction of the attribute and relational theory is the behavior concept of power (English. Veyamog Behavior), whose representatives (C. Merriy, Lassowell) are considering power as a special type of behavior due to an integral human property - the desire to power. Bihewicists pay special attention to the subjective motivation of power, considering the relationship of domination / subordination of the basis of political life.
From the standpoint of a sociological approach, power is considered as a special type of relationship. The most famous within this approach is the definition of power given by M. Weber, who understood power as the ability and the possibility of one individual in these social conditions to conduct its will contrary to the resistance of the other. The authorities are at the heart of the rule of domination and subordination arising between the authority of the authorities (dominant) and the government (obeying). Representatives of the relational approach (English Relation attitude) (D. Cartwright, P. Blau, D. Rong) consider power as social interaction in which the entity with the help of certain means (resources) controls the behavior of the object. Within the framework of this approach, the system interpretation of power is distinguished (K. Doych, N. Luman), emanating from determining the authorities as the ability of the political system to mobilize resources to achieve their goals, as well as the structural functional concept of power (T. Parsons), which considers power as social relations, Conditioned by those roles (functions), which are performed by various subjects.
The concept of power is determined by the multiplicity of problems. Missing requires a wide variety of functions that may be
We are to three main: to legislation, court and management.
The attitude to power permeates the whole society, the presence of confidence in power and the effective authority allows you to give the society a sustainable dynamic state that requires the legality and legitimacy of power.
Power, its character is determined by the system of institutions (state and legal), personal properties of the first person personifying power, the state can be managed, observing the laws (the guarantees of citizens depend on how the laws are compiled), balanceing power.
Political power is the real ability of this class, party, groups, individual to hold their will in politics and legal norms. The structure of power is formed:
2) Power entities: the state and its institutions, political elites and leaders, political bureaucracy;
3) Power facilities: individual, social group, weight, class, society, etc.;
4) Power functions: these are dominance, management, regulation, control, management, coordination, motivation, regulation;
5) Power resources: coercion, violence, conviction, encouragement, right, tradition, fear, myths, etc.
The main structural elements of political power are its subjects, objects, motives and resources (sources). The functioning of political power is carried out on the basis of the principles of sovereigntality and legitimacy.
The power limits are developing as resource flow (energy and substances), technologies - the ability of people use to meet their own needs and all less available resources and sources of energy. However, political power is not physical, but a socio-psychological nature, awareness of cultural intimacy and community of interest. The power that the subject has depends on the set of factors: on the position of a person in an administrative or other social structure, from his knowledge of skills, i.e. from any not indifferent to surrounding physical and spiritual qualities.
Political power is a kind of public, judicial social authority, along with family, church, economic, spiritual.
Political power is a specific form of public relations between large groups of people, the real ability of a certain social group or individual to implement its political will. This is the most common definition of political power. In political science there is a number of approaches to understanding this phenomenon. The behavior approach is considering power as a special type of behavior, which is based on the possibility of changing the behavior of other people. As part of such an understanding, power arises as a result of a mental impact on the inert and passive masses of a strong and gifted personality. In the heart of all state education lies behavioral psychological motive, namely - willingness to submission.
The etymological approach discloses power through the achievement of certain goals and cash results. Instrumentalist analysis of power represents power as the possibility of using certain funds, in particular, violence. The structruno-functional approach draws attention to the connection of power with the system of personal or group value assessments and, as a result, the choice of effective forms and means of political activities (School M. Weber).
The conflict direction determines the power as the regulation and distribution of material and spiritual public goods through political decisions in controversial situations.
The technological approach emphasizes attention on the relationship of the subject and the object of power in the field of rights and obligations, hierarchy of connections, responsibility and management aspects.
The main signs of political power are:
The presence of a subject and object. In other words, the authorities always assume two partners in relation to power, while the partners can be single leaders or groups of people;
The need for an order emanating from the subject of the authorities, accompanied by the real threat to the application of sanctions (impact measures);
The presence of a mechanism implementing submission;
Public standards, fixing the powers of the subject of power, i.e. Approved by the rights of the ordering and obliging to obey the order to be ordered.
Power is not always implemented in the form of an order. The power of money, for example, may be stronger than any order (or material interest from administrative order). In other words, the government is not so much an order, how much dominance of some beginning of social life, which directly or indirectly forces its addresses to think, feel and act in the direction defined by this dominant. At various times, the sources of power advocated money, wealth, interests, property, people, law. But the main and main source of power is a political organization.
The main attributes (essential properties) of political power are:
Power capacity, i.e. Its ability to create actions. This becomes possible as a result of support for a party, political movements, army, exploration and counterintelligence, i.e. Armed Forces, controlled by the government;
Forcedness, if there is no coercion - there is no power. The fairy tale that the main power of power is a conviction, good as propaganda. In reality, coercion is manifested either in coarse, physical form (bayonets and sticks), or in indirect form, which is more efficient. For example, through the education system, advertising, propaganda;
Legitimation of power, i.e. The recognition of the power is legitimate (natural) in the eyes of a wide mass, the people.
All power is characterized by the goal. The goals external, propaganda and true, open should be distinguished. As a rule, goals are expressed through program statements by the power of the property. The implementation of power relations depends on those methods, forms and principles on which relations between the subject and the object are based. Their use in practical activity allows you to adjust the functioning of the entire powerful mechanism, providing the ability to maximize the use of power tools to achieve the goals.
The socio-political institution of power includes a system of institutions that carry out state power (government authorities, management, armed forces, judicial authorities, etc.) related to the functioning that direct the activities of the authorities, expressing the interests of certain social groups, lead The struggle for mastering the authorities, for its restriction, opposition to her, etc.
The presence of power makes it possible to determine socially significant goals, solve social conflicts, make decisions. The power is multidimensional: it can be an economic, ideological, authoritarian, democratic, collegial, bureaucratic. Along with this, the power is multifunctional: it is inherent in the function of internal and external order. It should be noted that their scope does not remain unchanged, but depends on the content and phase of social development. Therefore, in whatever form of power, it is possible to highlight functions that are always inherent in any political power. Let's point them:
Ensuring and protecting political and legal order;
Organization of social production and maintenance of economic order, well-being of citizens;
Legal regulation of relations between individuals, their relationship with state and political institutions;
Formation of conditions for the development of education, upbringing, health care, recreation of people, in other words, the social sphere.
Depending on the completeness and power of power, an absolute, complete, partial or relative subordination of some social groups is expected to others. Power is implemented through the functions of domination, management, management.
Power as domination is manifested in the following:
Exceptional right to develop and nominate the goals of socio-economic development;
Monopolies on the distribution of resources of finished products, income;
Control over access to information used as a special resource;
The ability to prohibit certain types of activities and dictate the rules for this activity;
Ability to influence people and events.
Management is the ability (in accordance with the right to power)
Party, class, groups to carry out their political line by affecting various methods and forms of power to led areas, facilities, teams, individuals.
Management is the use of authority of power to form a targeted behavior of management facilities. As a rule, control provides a certain interaction (not always optimal) between objects: labor collectives, classes, nations, etc. Thus, the implementation of political, economic and other programs is carried out through management and organization.
The practical implementation of political and managerial functions requires the creation of a wide mechanism of management, which includes a set of various elements, relations, norms, views. The main elements of political power are:
State power with professional management apparatus, special legitimate powers and means of exposure. The orders and government of state power are generally obligatory and protected by the power of state coercion, enjoying the form of regulatory and legal establishments. At the same time, state power guarantees the necessary and sufficient conditions for the functioning of the public organism, it allows social contradictions, ensures the protection of the rights and freedom of citizen, carries out foreign policy of functions;
A combination of state and non-state institutions and organizations, within the framework of which the power is implemented "from the bottom to the back" and their relationship between themselves;
System of norms and views that determine and regulate relations between the subjects and the objects of power;
The political consciousness of citizens, which is expressed through political behavior and political participation in the affairs of the Company;
Political culture as a result of socialization and as the level of classes and ideas about power and political life.
In political science, such types of power are allocated as an economic, political, administrative, spiritual.
A characteristic feature of political power is its forced nature, namely: the existence of a certain social mechanism, which makes it a legitimate manner (through dominant public norms) to enforce those who do not want to submit to the adopted behavioral rules by the will of the ruling forces.
Economic power in its pure form does not contain an element of coercion. In other words, this government is public relations, not based on political coercion.
In the real relationship between them there is a close connection. In other words, who owns material means that allow them to carry out economic power (i.e., to direct the use of material tools to make dependent on themselves, in relation to which it is carried out) should also have (or through their accomplices themselves ) Means of coercion, which would allow them to effectively protect their property and those foundations of economic life, thanks to which the material benefits are in their ownership become a source of force. At the same time, those in whose hands are the means of coercion, they also have material tools that allow them to use not only coercion, but also economic pressure.
Administrative power covers a complex of political and legal phenomena: the office of public administration, civil servants and their competence. It organizes the defense of the country, the protection of state and public security, the activities of state enterprises and institutions.
The administrative apparatus is constructed in such a way that all its structural units are subject to teams that come from above, and this allows the superior links to move the lowest, determine the direction of their work. The power of administrative power depends on the authority with which it has, the resources owned by its unity, professionalism, as well as from confidence in the people. In the state, administrative power is based on armed groups, a branch apparatus, taxes.
Power as an expression of social relations in society is based on the interests of people, social communities, classes. The expression, presentation and implementation of interests are carried out through special organizations legally functioning within the Company. In this process, the "political" arises at the stage of "inclusion" of the organization in the struggle for power. Moreover, the interests of the "winners" in this struggle become prevalent, priority. Here, the volitional attitude, stimulating production and reproduction of power acquires a pronounced political color, as well as instrumental support in the form of legal acts and various socio-government institutions.
Therefore, the stability of power and management structures at the next stage depends on their skills and the ability to take into account the interests of opposite social forces. Consequently, the power that seeks to the stability of the social system should harmonize the interests of all through compromises, contracts, agreements.
Interest is understood as the desire, the implementation of which in certain conditions contributes to the satisfaction of the maximum number of needs. Interest is some objective relationship between the needs and the situation in which they are implemented by certain actions.
The nature of interest can be interpreted in two ways. On the one hand, interest as a position or complex of positions in relation to certain objects, i.e. The interest of the group of people is that the group considers its interest. On the other hand, interest as an objective state, estimated as useful for the group. The assessment in this case depends on the objective criteria: the shares in the benefits, values.
As politically important are the following group interests:
The interests of public classes arising from the place in the social process of production, from their relationship to the means of production;
The interests of nationalities and ethnic groups in multinational states;
Interests of regional groups and local (local) societies;
The interests of social layers arising from the difference in the lifestyle, education, income, types of labor, etc.;
The interests of demographic groups arising from the difference in the age and field;
The interests of religious groups depending on the role in the field of public life regulated by political power.
The interests of labor collectives, families and universal interests should also be allocated, for example, the preservation of life on Earth.
The task of power is to create conditions for their satisfaction, with which a reduction in tension due to incomprehensibility of interests, their regulation. So, the government today can not serve the interests of some, ignoring the interests of others or suppressing them. From the "Night Stores" of certain interests, the authorities turn into the institute of their regulation. This acts as the basis of the crisis of power, as she, separating from real interests, loses support and support. In such cases, the power to save the situation takes emergency measures that strengthen its authoritarian start (for example, new laws are published that give power to additional powers, etc.). However, these measures are temporary, and if they are ineffective and will not lead to the balance of interests in society, the crisis of power will enter its final stage, which is characterized by the change of power.
Political science is considering the following main types of power: totalitarian, authoritarian, liberal and democratic. Each of them has its own communication mechanism with society, its own way of implementation.
In the general theoretical sense, 2 stages of the implementation of power are distinguished:
Making a political decision;
Implementation of a political decision.
Totalitarian power does not know the problems of "power and society", since in the totalitarian consciousness the interests of the object and the subject of the authorities are inseparable and constitute a single whole. There are relevant problems such as power and people against the outside environment, power and people against internal enemies. The people accept and supports everything that the power of the property is doing. The principle is dominated in society: everything is prohibited, except that ordered. All the vital activity of people is absolutely regulated and controlled.
The power at all levels is formed closed (usually by one person or several people from the ruling top). In the future, such power is waiting for the decay. As a rule, totalitarian power exists as long as the dictator is alive. As its decomposition, the totalitarian power is replaced by another type of power, most often authoritarianism.
Authoritarian power concentrates in the hands of one person or group of persons. In politics, no competition is not allowed, but the government does not interfere in those areas of life that are not related to politics directly. A relatively independent economy can remain, culture, relationships between close people. Thus, an authoritarian society is built according to the principle: everything is allowed, except for politics. Authoritarian authority is sustainable, since it manages to combine economic prosperity with political stability, and at a certain stage of social development, the combination of strong power with free economies is the best possible.
Liberal power uses in its practice a dialogue with various political forces and social groups, allowing them to participate in decision-making, but at the same time it strictly adheres to the principle all that does not lead to the change of power. The role of society is limited by the impact on decision-making, the decision itself remains the prerogative of power. The society can affect, but can not choose, can advise, but can not require, can think, but can not solve.
Democratic power is characterized by the wide participation of citizens in the management, equality of all before the law, the presence of guaranteed rights and freedoms. Everyone can choose and be elected, the relationship between citizens and states are based on the principle of all that is not prohibited by law. Direct democracy as it was, and remains a unrealized dream, feasible in small groups of 10-100 people, as the entire people can not get together in the square. The real democracy is a democracy representative, the power of people chosen by the people.
The centuries of political practice have developed a reliable mechanism for stabilizing the power, achievement and preservation of consensus and protect the interests of the majority, separation of authorities to legislative, executive and judicial, which are implemented in the system of democratic political life.
Political power should include measures pursuing common interest, while measures are appropriate, which makes power the center of political unity, and based on a solid foundation of law.
For the evolutionary and sustainable development of society, strong power is necessary.
Strong power is not despotism, not dictatorship, not violence, but above all, it is:
Power of laws, rights and rules;
Support for significant public support;
Ensuring the constitutional order when the power serves not to parties, not grouping, not someone's political ambitions, but to society as a whole;
When power is properly organized and distributed, on the basis of distinction and interaction between all its branches, political leaders;
The ability of power commensurately and flexibly apply violence against citizens, but against real opponents of the constitutional system.
This ideal theoretical model does not coincide with real practice in most states, including in Russia. The complication of social relations at the present stage of the development of Russian society is radically changing the appearance of the society itself, and, accordingly, it needs to be applied by other methods and forms of the activities of political and powerful structures, as in the development of new directions for the development of power itself
Subject: State, political power, political system of society .
Plan.
1. State.
2. Political power.
3. Political Society Society
·one· State
Defining approaches to the coverage of the issue of the state, in our opinion, attention should be focused on such aspects as the problem of understanding the state, its essence and patterns of development. First of all, we emphasize that the state is a complex and historically developing socio-political phenomenon.
The state ensures the integrity and manageability of society. It is the political organization of the entire population of the country of society. Without a state, social progress is impossible. The existence and development of civilizational society. State
provides organizedness and sells democracy, economic freedom, freedom of autonomous personality - said S.S. Alexseev, with this difficult to disagree. All this largely actualizes the problem of the topic.
Among those considered in the scientific literature, many theories of the state of origin are drawn attention. The most include: theological (F.Akvinsky); Patriála (Aristotle, Filler, Mikhailovsky); Patrimonial (galler); contractual (T. Gobbs, D. Lukk, J.-zh. Rousseau, P. Golbach); violence theory (Dügring, L. Gumplovich, K. Kautsky), psychological (L.I. Petrazhitsky); Marxist (K.Marks, F. Entells). IN AND. Lenin, G.V. Plakhanov. There are other, less well-known theories. But they are all steps to know the truth.
The definition of the state remains as a controversial problem. Many scientists characterized the state as the organization of law and order (order), seeing its essence and main purpose.
The bourgeois era has spread the definition of the state as a totality (union) of people, territories occupied by these people, and power. However, this understanding of the state served as a reason for various simplifications. So some authors identified the state with the country, others with society, the third - with a circle of persons engaged in the government (government).
The difficulties of developing the definition of the analyzed phenomenon gave rise to disbelief into the possibility of its formulation at all.
The definitions of the state, these classics of Marxism-Leninism, which seemed to be unshakable, are currently criticized. So researchers emphasize that they apply only to such states in which high class tensions and political confrontation arise. Withdrawing the violent side to the definition of the state, modern researchers emphasize, it does not allow to see the valuable phenomena of civilization, culture and social order in the state.
In modern scientific literature there is no shortage of state definition. Until recently, it was defined as a political and territorial sovereign organization of public authority, which has a special apparatus, capable of making its venals with mandatory for the whole country. However, in this definition, the connection of the state and society is poorly reflected.
"" The state is emphasized in the textbook edited by V.V. Nazarova is a special organization of the public political power of the dominant class (social group, the block of class forces, the entire people), which has a special control and coercion, which representing society, integrates "".
There are such definitions of the state that are abstract character: "The state is the organization of the political power necessary to fulfill both the purely class tasks and general cases arising from the pyramid of any society".
Finally, the topic of determining the state by completing the definition given in the textbook edited by V.M. Korel and V.D. Perevalov: "" The state is the political organization of the Company, providing its unity and integrity, through the state mechanism for managing the Company's affairs, sovereign public power, which gives the right to communicate, guaranteeing the rights, freedom of citizens, legality and law enforcement "". The above definition reflects the general concept of the state, but more approaches the modern state.
An essential component when analyzing the problem of the state is the disclosure of its signs. They, in fact, distinguish the state from other organizations belonging to the political system of society. What are they?
1. The state within its borders acts as the only official representative of the entire society and the population to be united by citizenship.
2. The state is the only carrier of sovereign power, i.e. He owns the supremacy on its territory and independence in international relations.
3. The state issues laws and regulatory acts with legal force and containing the rules of law. They are mandatory for all organs, associations, organizations, officials and citizens.
4. The state is a mechanism (apparatus) of the Company's management, which is a system of state bodies and material resources necessary to fulfill its tasks and functions.
5. The state is the only organization in the political system, which has law enforcement agencies designed to stand guard of legality and law enforcement.
6. The state, in contrast to other components of the political system, has armed forces and security bodies that provide defense, sovereignty and security.
7. The state is closely and organically related to the right, which is the normative expression of the state will of society.
The concept of state includes the characteristics of its essence, i.e. The main, determining, sustainable, natural in this phenomenon. Among theories related to the essence of the state, the following can be distinguished
Theory of Elite. , formed at the beginning of the twentieth century. In the works of V.Paretho, Moski and developed in the middle of a century H. Vashal, D. Sartori, and others. The essence of it is that they are controlled by the state of the elite, because, the masses are not capable of performing this function.
Technocratic theory Arriving in the 20s. HHST. and spreading in 60-70s. Her supporters were T.Veblen, D. Barnheim, D. Bell, and others. The essence of it is that they are managed by society - specialists who are able to determine the optimal ways of development.
Theory of Plusional Democracy which appeared in HCST. Its representatives were the city of Laski, M. Duvene, R. Dal, and others. The meaning of her is that the authorities lost classroom. The Company consists of a set of people associations (strata). They are based on various organizations that have pressure on state authorities.
These rules have made a certain contribution to the definition of the essence of the state. At the same time, most of the works published in previous years / its entity were considered unambiguously from class positions as an instrument of unlimited power / dictatorship of the dominant class. On the contrary, in Western theories, the state is shown as an obscure education, a tool of reconciliation contradictions representing the interests of the whole society.
Now the erroneous interpretation of the state is recognized exclusively from class items. Such an approach dropped to a certain extent, distorted the idea of \u200b\u200bthe state, contained a simplified, unilateral understanding of its essence, focused on the priority of violent parties in this phenomenon and aggravation of class contradictions.
As a unilateral appearance, the approach is based on unilateral. It would be correct to invest in the understanding of the state, noted in the literature, and class and national approach.
The universal purpose of the state is to be a tool of social compromise, softening and overcoming contradictions, finding the consent and cooperation of various segments of the population and public strength, ensuring the social orientation of the functions carried out by them.
In modern conditions, priority is given to universal values. Thus, the state corresponds to the level of development of democracy and is characterized by the development of ideological pluralism, publicity, the rule of law, the protection of the rights and freedoms of the individual, the presence of an independent court, etc.
It is also important to emphasize that the importance of the social part of state activities will increase. Simultaneously with the development of this trend, the share of class content will be compressed.
Among the foregoing, finally, the essence of the state affects the specific historical conditions for the development of individual countries, religious and national factors.
An important point of work, in our opinion, is the coverage of the economic, social and scientific basis of the state. The state cannot but exist, normally function and develop without economic foundation, basis, under which the system of economic (production) relations between this society existing in it is usually understood. The basis of the basis of largely the state financial and economic basis (state budget) is largely dependent. World history suggests that at various stages of development, the state had a different economic basis and relate to economics in different ways.
The state from the natural market economy was transformed towards state-legal regulation of the economy, planning and forecasting.
Along with the economic state, the social function was also carried out - pension legislation, benefits unemployed, minimum wages, etc.
The Soviet state relied on the planned economy and nationwide property, which turned into a draw, that T led to the crisis.
Historical experience shows that the optimal economic basis can serve as a socially oriented market economy, based on competing various forms of ownership.
The social base of the state is those layers, classes and groups of society that are interested in it, it is actively supported. Thus, on the latitude of the social base of the state, the sustainability, AI power of the state depends on its society, the ability to solve the task before it. The state having a narrow social basis is unstable.
Developed states, which is especially relevant to Ukraine in modern conditions, should be carried out on a scientific basis that excludes the method of samples and errors. Therefore, scientific experts are needed, optimal options, coherence of solutions and the results of progressive development.
One of the basic patterns of the evolution of the state in the path of translational development is that, as the civilization and development of democracy improves, it turns into a political organization of the Company, where the entire complex of state institutions is actively functioning in accordance with the principle of separation of the authorities.
Scientists emphasize the increase in the role of the state in society. The argument of this is the dissemination of its organizing activities for all areas of society through newly created institutions and organs.
Under the influence of the scientific and technical revolution and the process of global integration, the creation of a global market in the development of the state appeared a new pattern - the rapprochement of states, their mutual understanding as a result of interaction.
Thus, the problems of understanding the state, its essence and patterns of development make it possible to determine it as a complex and historically developing social and political phenomenon; confirm the presence of pluralism in understanding and determining the state; Determine its signs, essence, basics and patterns of development.
· 2 · Political power
To sort out the problem of political power, you need to know what power is in general. In this regard, M.I. Baitine proposes to consider power as a commonociological category.
It is known, emphasizes the author's mentioned that political power is not the only type of public authority. The government is inherent in any organized, more or less sustainable and targeted community of people. It is characteristic of both class and classless society, both for society as a whole and various components of his formations.
With all the diversity of views on the power of many of the representatives of various currents of public thought inherent in its characteristics as an authority, which has the opportunity to obey, subordinate to their will of other people.
Power in general, being a direct product of versatile relations between people, their interests and mitigations, while the contradictions, possible compromises, represents an objectively necessary condition for the participation of members of society in the production and reproduction of life.
Based on the above, the power as a category can be determined as an appropriate character and level of social life to the functioning of any social community, which consists in the subordination of the will of individuals and their associations in this society.
Political power is a special kind of public authority. It is characteristic that in the scientific and educational literature the terms "" Political power "and" "state power" "are usually identified. Such identification, although not indisputable, permissible, read in the textbook edited by V.M. Korel and V.D. Perevalov. All the case, emphasized in the specified source, the state power is always political and contains element of classiness.
The founders of Marxism characterized the state (political) power as "" organized violence of the same class to suppress the other "". For class and antagonistic society, this characteristic may be acceptable. However, the use of this thesis to the government, the more democratic, hardly acceptable because inevitably lead to negative to her and to the persons who embody it, with respect.
In addition, with a democratic mode, it is hardly advisable to share society on only the rules and only subject. After all, even the higher authorities of the state and the highest officials are over themselves the supreme power of the people, being both the object and the subject of the government. However, there is no complete coincidence between these categories even in a democratic society. If such a identity comes, the state power will lose political in nature and will turn into directly public, without government agencies.
Often, state power is identified with state bodies, especially higher. From a scientific point of view, such identification is unacceptable, since political power initially belongs not to the state and its bodies, and either elite or class or the people. We consider it right to emphasize that the powerful entity does not transmit its power to state authorities, but gives them authorities.
It is important to draw attention to the fact that in the special legal and political science literature, a number of scientists advocate the distinguishes between the categories of political and state power. Such scientists as FM Burletsky, N.M. Kaisers and others. The concept of "" political power "" use in a broader sense than "" state power "." This power, they emphasize, carried out not only by the state, but also by other links of the political system of society: parties, mass community organizations.
However, use of the term '' political power '' in the broad sense of a very broad sense, is very conditional, because the very political power and the degree of participation in it, including from various political parties - not the same thing.
Thus, political power is a type of public authority, which is carried out either directly by the state itself, or delegated to them, that is, it is carried out on his behalf, on its authority and with its support.
Considering such power as the most important, determining sign of the state, researchers pay attention to its public.
The characteristics of this public or political power are as follows:
1. In case of a generic device, public authorities expressed the interests of all classless society. The state power is classified.
2. Political public power as opposed to the generic, which did not know of any special management system and merged with the population not directly coincide with nasuleniem carried out control unit, consisting of people who rule others.
3. Unlike the generic system, where public opinion served as a factor in the subordination of the power of elders and compliance with customs, political power relies on the possibility of state coercion and a specially adapted device for this purpose.
5. In the labor organization of the Company, people were divided according to the principle of blood relations; The establishment of political power, marking the emergence of the state, is construed with the division of the population in the territorial basis.
6. From the point of view of the ratio of public authority with society under primitive community, there was a "authority" power ", while political, state power is" "authority.
These are the main signs of political power, distinguishing it from the public authority of the generic system.
the problem of the implementation of political power methods remains a very important and very curious. This, in our opinion, delegation of representatives of political parties to representative and administrative authorities; development and implementation of political programs; This is a method of political discussion; political compromises; moral incentive and, which became traditional, the method of belief.
Regarding the latter, we draw attention to the fact that the mechanism of conviction includes a set of ideological social and psychological means and forms of impact on individual or group consciousness, the result of which is the assimilation and adoption by an individual, a team of certain social values.
The literature emphasizes that the conviction is a method of active influence on the will and consciousness of man and ideological direction of funds for the formation of his views and ideas, based on a deep understanding of the essence of the government, its objectives and functions.
Note that with the development of the democratization process, the role and importance of the method of belief in the implementation of political power is naturally increasing.
In the literature, the researchers allocate the researchers - the method of state coercion. He limits human freedom. Puts it in such a position when he has no choice other than the option proposed (imposed) power.
At the same time, the interests and motives of antisocial behavior are suppressed by coercion, the contradictions between the common and individual will are forced, socially useful behavior is stimulated.
State coercion is legal and non-law.
The higher the level of legal organization of state coercion, the higher the functions of a positive factor in the development of society.
The author still believes that relative to the problem of political (state) power is more appreciated by the method of belief. In the implementation of the method of coercion, political power, in our opinion, to a certain extent loses political character.
Political power is determined by the authority of the economic. But between these concepts there is a feedback. It is from political power and its solutions a lot depends on the level and the pace of economic development.
All power, including political, is truly stable and strong primarily due to its social base. Political power operates in society divided into classes, various social groups and contradictory, part of irreconcilable interests.
To resolve social contradictions, for interpersonal, intergroup, interclasses, and national relations, the harmonization of various interests and there is a political (state) power. Only democratic power is capable of solving such tasks.
Political power to strive to create a presentation in society as an exemplary-moral, even if it does not correspond to reality. That is why power, having a goal and using methods that contradict moral ideals and values, was called and recognized as an immoral, devoid of moral authority.
For political power, historical, socio-cultural and national traditions have great importance. If power relies on tradition, they strengthen it in society, make it more durable and stable.
Political power objectively needs ideology, i.e. Systems of ideas closely related to the interests of the ownership of the subject. With the help of ideology, power explains its goals and objectives, methods and ways to achieve them. The ideology provides the authority of a certain authority, proves the identity of its goals of popular interests and goals.
At the same time, it must be borne in mind that social life in Ukraine is based on a political, economic ideological diversity. "" None of the ideologies can be recognized by the state as mandatory. "
An important problem in the analysis of political power is its legitimacy. The literature has developed typology and sources of legitimacy of power. The latter include:
The ideological principles and persuasions of citizens in a political stroke as the highest;
Dedication of power, thanks to the positive assessment of the personal qualities of the subjects of the authorities;
Political (or state) coercion.
It should be borne in mind that the legitimacy of the ownership subject is reflected and legal consolidation in the Constitution of Ukraine. So in Art. 5 reads: "The carrier of the sovereignty and the only source of power in Ukraine is the people" ".
Thus, political power is primarily the corporate interests of a certain part, social group, class; Its implementation is carried out by a special apparatus, which is separated from society and performs management functions, receiving a monetary remuneration for it; ensuring political solutions is carried out using the created management apparatus; Political power has in its arsenal relevant methods of activity; It also has economic, social and moral and ideological foundations.
· 3 · Political system of society
In scientific and educational literature, there are various definitions of the political system. More convenient, in our opinion, is the definition given by K.S. Gadzhiyev: "" The political system is a combination of interacting norms, ideas and political institutions based on them, institutions and actions that organize political power, the relationship of citizens and the state. Its main purpose is to ensure the integrity, the unity of people's actions in politics.
The components of the political system are:
A) a set of political associations (state, political parties Public and political organizations and movements);
B) political attitudes formed between the structural elements of the system;
C) political norms and traditions regulating the country's political life;
D) political consciousness reflecting the ideological and psychological characteristics of the system;
E) political activities.
The political system is a dialectical unity of four sides: and institutional, regulatory, functional and ideological.
In this regard, it is advisable to note that the political standards and the relationship arising on their basis are called political institutions. The process of implementing ideas in the norms, rules, the principles of the existence of political organizations are called institutionalization, this is the formation of elements of the political organization of the Company.
The political system includes not all institutions, but only those that take on the fulfillment of its specific functions in society. The state feature is that it is a combination of bodies carrying out the power management functions of the Company.
Policy organizational relations are endowed with some features:
Common goal for all participants in the organization;
Hierarchy of the structure of relations within the organization;
Differentiation of norms for managers and led.
A variety of activities of people aimed at ensuring the functioning, transformation and protection of the political power system in society is the essence of political activities.
Political activity is heterogeneous, several states can be distinguished in its structure - political activity and passivity. At the same time, the criterion of active activity is the desire and opportunity, affecting political power or directly using it to implement their interests.
Political passivity is a type of political activity, in which the subject does not implement its own interests and be influenced by another social group.
Under political consciousness refers to the diversity of manifestations of spirituality, reflecting the activities of the mechanisms of political power and guiding people's behavior in the sphere of political relations. In political consciousness, two levels are distinguished: conceptual and ordinary.
The characteristic of the political system includes political culture. This is a system of values, political ideas, symbols, beliefs adopted by members of the political community used to regulate activities and relationships.
Since in the sphere of political relations, people are dealing with the choice of the order of actions, the values \u200b\u200bplay a huge role in the formation of the nature, the direction of political actions and processes. To a large extent, they define the type of political systems, priority state mechanisms. The reflection of their evolution is the change of dominant in the political system of values.
The central element of the political system is the state. The state performs such a political function as an authoritarian distribution of values, which can act material benefits, social advantages, cultural achievements, etc.
The next function of the political system is the integration of society, ensuring the relationship of the unity of the actions of various components of its structure.
The next function of the political system is to streamline political processes. As a type of activity, it is aimed at implementing the goals of updating and stabilization.
Other functions of the political system are allocated in the literature. The inability to implement the political system of its most important functions is its crisis.
Depending on the factors and the dominant political regime, various political system typologies are formed:
Command - oriented forced, power management methods;
Competitive - based on the confrontation, confrontation of various political and social forces;
Complimentary - aimed at maintaining social consensus and overcoming conflicts.
Another problem requiring consideration is the characteristics of the main subjects of the political system. One of them is the political party. It performs the function of representing the interests of various social groups; Integrates the social group included in the scope of political relations; In the removal of its internal contradictions.
Parties have their own program, the system of goals, more or less branched organizational, impose certain duties on their members and form the norms of behavior.
Batches can be class, national, religious, distressed, state-patriotic forming around popular political figure, the so-called "" ----------- Party "."
Another subject of the political system is the movement. They do not have a rigid centralized organization, no fixed membership. The program and the doctrine replaces the purpose or system of political goals. Dominant trend in modern conditions Preference movements before parties.
The next subject of the political system is the pressure groups. They are characterized by strict conspiracy, concealment of goals, rigid hierarchy of construction, strict dosage on the structure and activities of the organization.
The political system consists of opposing parties in relation to the contrary. The destruction of such contradictions is the internal source of self-development.
Internal contradictions of an objective plan have important for the development process. The destruction of this kind of contradictions means gaining a qualitatively new, higher form of movement. An example is the activities of a democratic state to overcome one of the main contradictions between the state and the citizen.
Contradictions subjective plan, caused by mismatched ideological, political, psychological and legal systems prevailing morals in a society of law and order, or permitted by eradicating the negative manifestations, or by consensus.
Among all the diverse grounds for the classification of political patterns, such criteria such as institutionality, depth and versatility of their historical action, class essence are of the most general importance.
The set of techniques, methods, methods, the means of making political power is called a political regime.
The following types are distinguished:
Democratic - when the right to participate in public affairs, human rights is respected and protected;
Totalitarian - when denied or significantly limited rights and freedoms of individuals, all aspects of society's life are strictly controlled by an authoritarian state.
The political system of the legal state is based on:
first, changing the interpretation of the source of law when they are not a state, but a person;
secondly, changing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe relationship between the state and the law. According to the concept of the legal state, there is not any erected will be eligible, but only such that does not contradict and violates human rights, but strengthens and protects them;
thirdly, approval in society and its political system of such political quality, as respect for the law, based on consideration of it as the main, dominant factor.
Political systems operating on the basis of the principles of the legal state have significant features to which:
legitimacy (adoption by the population of state power, recognition of its right to manage and consent will obey);
legality . regulativity expressed in the ability to operate and limited by law;
safety , the most important aspects of which are.
The concept of public political power is a generic concept for all applications.
In society, there are different types of personal and social power -.. The power of head of the family, the power of lord of that servant or the servant, the economic power of the owners of the means of production, the spiritual power (authority) of the Church, etc. All these species are either individual or corporate, Group power. It exists due to personal dependence subjects, does not apply to all members of society, is not carried out by the name of the people, does not claim unauthority, is not public.
The authorities are publicly distributed by the territorial principle, everything is subject to all who are on a certain "subjectable" territory. These "all" are a proven people, the population, a set of abstract subjects (subjects or citizens). It doesn't matter for public authority, due to blood-based, ethnic bonds or not. Public power on its territory is subject to all, including foreigners (with rare exceptions).
Political power is power management in the interests of the well-being of society as a whole and regulatory public relations in order to achieve or maintain stability and order.
Public political power is carried out by a special layer of people professionally involved in the management and component of the authority. This apparatus subjects all sectors of society, social groups at will (the will of the ruler of the parliamentary majority, the political elite, and so on. D) controls on the basis of organized coercion including the possibility of physical violence against social groups and individuals. The apparatus of public political power exists and operates at the expense of taxes from the population, which are established and charged either by right. When taxpayers are free owners, or arbitrarily, by force - when they are not free. In the latter case, these are no longer taxes in their own sense, but tribute or grant.
The apparatus of public political power is intended to act in a general interest. But the apparatus and above all his leaders express the interests of society as they understand them; More precisely, during democracy, the device expresses the real interests of most social groups, and during authoritarianism the rulers themselves determine what the interests and needs of society are. Due to the relative independence of the authority from society, the corporate interests of the apparatus and individual rulers may not coincide with the interests of the majority of other social groups. The device and rulers always seek to issue their interests for the interests of society as a whole, and their interests are primarily to preserve and strengthen the authorities, in the preservation of power in their hands.
In broad terms, the apparatus of public political power includes the legislator (who may be the parliament and the sole ruler), governmental-administrative and financial authorities, the police, the military, the courts, penal institutions. All the highest powers of public political power can be connected in one person or authority, but can be separated. In the narrow sense, the Authority, or the Office of the Office, is a combination of authorities and officials, excluding the elected members of the Legislative Assembly (government representative office) and judges.
The apparatus of public political power has a monopoly for coercion up to violence throughout the subject matter and in relation to the entire population. No other social power can not compete with a public political power and use force without its permission - this means the sovereignty of public political power ie it was subject to the rule of the territory and independence from government organizations operating outside the territory... Only the apparatus of public political power can issue laws and other general obligatory acts. All orders of this power are mandatory for execution.
Thus, public political power is characterized by the following formal features:
The organization of public political power and its functioning can be regulated by laws. At the same time, real political public-power relations may more or less deviate significantly from what is established by law. Power can be carried out by law and regardless of the law.
Finally, the public political power can be different in content, namely, two fundamentally opposite types are possible: either the power is limited to freedom of contempt and intended to protect their freedom, or it exists in society where there is no freedom, and is unlimited. Thus, the legal type of organization and the implementation of political power (statehood) and the power type (from old despotism to modern totalitarianism) are distinguished. , ..
If at least part of the subordinates is free in relation to the power, it means that they are politically free and participate in state-legal communication, have rights in relation to the apparatus of power, and therefore participates in the formation and implementation of public political power. The opposite type, the despotium is such an organization of the authorities in which subjects are not free, have no rights. The power of this type forms and regulates all relations between the subject, creates a public order, and society itself.
In modern science, the relationship between the states and the right is generally recognized, the need for the legal basis of power in the state. But if we assume that the right and law is identical, then the state can be considered any organization, personal political power, since the despotic power relies on the laws. But if proceeding from distinguishing the right and law and a liberal understanding of law, it should be recognized that the state authority is only such a public political power, in which at least part of the subject part of the members of society has freedom.
On this basis, various concepts of the state are based on. E. In various concepts, the sphere of public-powerful political phenomena, described as a state, is more or less broad. As part of the positivist type of understanding of law and the state, the sociological and legist concept of the state is known. Within the framework of the Uzpolystivist, legal type of ruthlessness in modern science, the liberal concept is developing, explaining the state as the legal type of organization and the implementation of public political power.
Public power - a set
The control apparatus - implies organs of legislative and executive bodies, and others. Authorities with which management is carried out.
The suppression apparatus is special organs that are eligible and have strength and means for the compulsory performance of state will. It:
The most important sign of the state is the presence of a staff of public political power. The essence of this institute is to concentrate the powerful powers in the hands of professional managers, the allocation of which in a relatively independent group is nothing more than the fourth major division of labor. In this sense, F. Engels, F. Engels, should be recognized that "the significant sign of the state is in the public authority separated from the mass of the people."
The staff of state power as an organization operating in social management has a public character - the powerful regulations adopted on behalf of the state are equally mandatory for all community members, regardless of whether they were directly involved in the preparation and adoption of these prescriptions or not. Moreover, it does not matter internal attitude (agreement or disagreement) of the subject to the common behavior established on behalf of the state, the effectiveness of which is guaranteed by the entire state mechanism (including coercion mechanism) and which is authorized by the state (for violation of the established prescription, adequate harm caused Legal validity measures).
The activities of state authorities are aimed at implementing the most important functional powers of the state in the law-speaking, law enforcement, law enforcement and supervisory and control spheres. Thus, the state power from other power structures of the domestic and international nature is distinguished by the monopolistic right to lawmaking, justice, state coercion.
Public power is the political power of the dominant class, regardless of the specific state forms of its organization and manifestation. The main functions of the public power are submission (including the suppression of the resistance of other classes), the organization of the Company, management of them in accordance with the economic, political and spiritual interests of this class.
In the socialist state, public authorities serves the interests of the people, expresses his will and is associated with the diverse democratic forms, which are improved as socialism.
The government is characterized by a number of distinctive features: 1) legality; 2) legitimacy.
Legality - use of force within the state. A positive assessment, the adoption by the population of power, recognition of its legitimacy, the right to manage and consent to obey its legitimacy. Legitimate power is usually characterized as legitimate and fair. Legitimacy is associated with the presence of authority in power, its compliance with the value ideas of most citizens, with the consensus of society in the field of fundamental political values.
The term "legitimacy" itself is sometimes translated from French as "legality" or "legalism". Such a translation is not entirely accurate. The legality, understood as an action through the law and in accordance with it, may be inherent in the illegitimate power.
A great contribution to the theory of legitimation of domination (power) made Max Weber. Depending on the motives of submission, he allocated three main types of legitimacy of power:
1. Traditional legitimacy. It is gained due to customs, habit to obey the authorities, faith in the unshakability and the sacredity of the existing order. Traditional domination is characteristic of the monarchy. In terms of its motivation, it is largely similar to the relationship in a patriarchal family, based on the unquestioned obedience to the elders and on the personal, informal nature of the relationship between the head of the family and its members. Traditional legitimacy is distinguished by strength. Therefore, Weber believed, for the stability of democracy, it is useful to preserve the hereditary monarch, supporting the authority of the state centuries-old traditions of reverending power.
2. Charismatic legitimacy. It is based on faith in exceptional qualities, a wonderful gift, i.e. Charisma, the head, whom they sometimes even deify, create a cult of his personality. The charismatic method of legitimation is often observed during the periods of revolutionary interim when the new government for recognizing the population cannot rely on the authority of traditions or the democratically pronounced will of the majority. In this case, the greatness of the personality of the leader is consciously cultivated, whose authority sanctifies the institutions of power, contributes to their recognition and adoption by the population. Charismatic legitimacy is based on faith and on an emotional, personal attitude of the leader and mass.
3. Rational-legal (democratic) legitimacy. Its source acts rationally understandable interest, which encourages people to obey the decisions of the government formed by the generally accepted rules, i.e. Based on democratic procedures. In such a state, not the personality of the head, but the laws, in which the representatives of the authorities are elected and operate. Rational-legal legitimacy is characteristic of democratic states. This is predominantly structural or institutional legitimacy based on citizen confidence in the state of the state, and not to individual personalities (personal legitimacy). Although often, especially in young democracies, the legitimacy of power can be based not so much on respect for elective institutions, how much on the authority of a particular person of the head of the state. In the modern world, the legitimacy of power is often identified only with its democratic legitimacy.
The legitimacy of power is not limited to its three, which are classic types. There are other methods of legitimation and, accordingly, the types of legitimacy. One of them is ideological legitimacy. Its essence is to justify the power with the help of ideology introduced into the mass consciousness. Ideo-logic justifies the compliance of the authorities to the interests of the people, nation or class, its right to manage. Depending on which ideology appeales and what ideas it uses, ideological legitimacy can be class or nationalist. Class legitimacy has been widespread the Class and Administrative Socialism. In the second polo xx century. Many young states in attempts to obtain recognition and support of the population very often resort to the nationalist legitimation of their power, often establishing ethnocratic regimes.
Ideological legitimation is based on the introduction into the consciousness and subconscious of people of a certain "official" ideology using the methods of belief and suggestion. However, in contrast to the rational-legal legitimation appealing to consciousness, reason, it is a unidirectional process that does not imply inverse relations, the free participation of citizens in the formation of ideological platforms or their choice.
