The quality of the software is becoming increasingly acute today, especially as the use of information technology and the increase in the complexity of software expands. High quality products gives developers not only competitive advantages and credit customer confidence, but also facilitates support and development of software. This article outlines the views of the staff of the Development Unit on the Galaxy Corporation on the problem of creating high-quality software.
The developers who stood at the origins of the Galaxy system acquired experience in creating software in the structures of the military-industrial complex. Naturally, the requirements for the reliability of automated systems for the management of troops were very high - the refusal during hostilities meant the emergence of a deadly danger for hundreds of thousands of people. Based on the developed reliability measures, then it was possible to create a system, during operation, no error in the software was manifested. The accumulated experience was based on a corporate culture of software development, a significant aspect of which is constantly attention to quality issues.
In the field of economics and business management, the right to existence is only certainly good software, rather than "sturgeon of the second freshness", therefore the concept of "sufficiently good software", which many leading manufacturers are implemented today looks at least strange. Of course, it is possible to argue that the human life supply system and the corporate information system differ from the point of view of error critics. But, on the other hand, the client has the right to expect that the software product will in no way endange the "health" and the existence of its enterprise.
The most acceptable landmark for the corporation is the experience of IBM - one of the leading development developers for US defense projects. It is known, for example, that in three million lines of the side of the side for "shuttles" contain less than one error for ten thousand rows. We are actively implementing IBM organizational and technological experience in our practice.
Another reference point was generally accepted ISO 9000 quality standards. According to ISO 8402, under quality, the combination of the characteristics of the software product belonging to its ability to satisfy the established and intended needs of customers are understood. The main parameters of the quality are: functional completeness, compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the CIS countries, the security of information, the simplicity of operation that does not require special knowledge in the field of information technology, ergonomics of the user interface, minimizing the cost of operation, development and upgrades.
Under reliability, it is usually understood that the ability of the system to perform the specified functions, while maintaining the main characteristics under certain operating conditions. For software, this is primarily trouble-free work, no errors that impede the normal functioning of the enterprise.
Quality and reliability in the complex provide high consumer properties of software. In the process of creating a software product, they are simultaneously and continuously controlled and improved. However, how much to ensure the quality and reliability of a complex multifunctional system with limited development timing? To illustrate, you can bring the results of a survey of more than a thousand large companies conducted by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry of the UK. It turned out that the average frequency of information systems failures was: 1 Refusal per year - 40% of companies, 1 Refusal per month - 29%, 1 Failure per week - 15% of companies, 1 Daily refusal - 7% and 5% of companies observed More than one refusal per day. At the same time, the share of failures and failures of the software in the overall list of causes of inoperability (downtime) of information systems was 24%.
Depending on the delivery kit, the Galaxy system may include over three thousand interconnected business functions, the results of the execution of which are controlled by more than 300 settings. Obviously, it is possible to achieve the desired quality and reliability, only designating them as a priority purpose and constantly move towards it in the following areas:
One of the key quality assurance elements is testing. Many well-known software developers conduct testing their products in several stages, which differ in the types of work performed and attracted by resources. Corporation "Galaxy" in this sense is no exception.
In fact, testing begins in the process of encoding the next version. As part of groups of specialists working on a certain part of the system, there are so-called "local" testers. Their task is the operational testing of newly developed or modified system functions. A similar "conveyor" organization of work allows you to save time and strength, since a significant part of errors is detected and eliminated almost at the time of occurrence. The work of the testers at this stage is localized within the part of the system developed by this group, so we are talking about "local" testing.
It is known that when a person works for a long time over one problem, it has certain stereotypes, which often prevent their own errors. To avoid this, with a certain degree of system readiness, we begin cross-test. The developers not only a "fresh look" check each other's work, but at the same time exchange experience.
And local, and cross-testing is accompanied by checking the source code. If the test of the system with the system is the search for errors on their manifestations during the program execution process, then the operation with the source code allows you to "catch" errors that do not appear at normal testing immediately.
During encoding, individual functions or their blocks within one system module are checked. The system is then starting to test the system as a single whole (integral testing) on \u200b\u200bthe sets of business processes, to implement the functions of a series of modules. This development cycle stage includes several stages.
First, only units of the software development department (department of integral testing, etc.) are included in the work - this stage of the development cycle is called internal testing. The functional completeness of the system is checked, the correspondence of project documentation, the correctness of project decisions. Compliance with the compliance of the legislation of the CIS countries: Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and Kazakhstan.
At the next stage, resources are involved in the work, external in relation to the Department of Development by: Divisions of the Corporation Corporation and Technical Support; Customers - customers of new system functions; Other interested organizations.
The concept of "external testing" is wider than traditional "beta testing", in which only current and potential consumers participate. At the external testing stage, the efforts of hundreds of experienced experts using various methodology and a variety of approaches to working with the system occurs. All specialists are combined into a single information network of the "Problems and Solutions" system. Almost all divisions of the Corporation participate in external testing, and the union with the Carus Corporation has created the possibility of sharing software products for cross-integral testing.
Both internal and external testing constantly holds a statistical analysis of the number of detected and corrected errors, based on the results of which the decision on the transition to the next step (Fig. 2) is made.
Final testing is carried out by the Department of Integral Testing Department of the Department of Software Development. His task is to once again check the implementation of the maximum number of business processes and make sure that the correction of errors in the previous steps has not caused new errors. In fact, this is a "run" system to which 10 working days is given. For comparison, during the acceptance of military systems for a similar procedure, a maximum of 4 days was allocated. We take more time and resources for it to guarantee high reliability due to the complete coverage of typical business processes.
Further, the version of the system is transmitted to the pilot operation to the enterprises. This is also a responsible stage, because even the most complete testing does not always allow to identify all the nuances that are found in real exploitation. (Usually the interested customer acts as a picky and meticulous tester.) If there is no serious comments during the month, the version is transmitted to the rest of customers and on commercial realization.
As a result, the version on the way from the developer to the client passes six levels of testing (Fig. 2), each of which provides minimization of errors and achieve the values \u200b\u200bof quality and reliability indicators established at the beginning.
All work on improving the quality of the software product will certainly require organizational, technical and methodological support.
Following IBM's experience and ISO 9000-3 recommendations, the post of quality specialist, which functionally obeys local band testers and integral testing department. The main task of this specialist is to provide the necessary level of quality and reliability of the software product (version, release).
As for the technical support, here, first of all, it should be noted the AQA automated testing system, which allows us to solve a number of issues.
All this refers to testing new versions, the full development cycle of which occupies almost six months. In the period between the versions, as a rule, the so-called "releases", the release of which is associated with the need to monitor changes in legislation and quickly solve the problems of corporation's strategic clients. Suggested deadlines require a special testing technique. On the one hand, the main amount of work is shifted to the AQA system - no command of the tests will not be able to pass all typical business processes for 2 days and ensure that the changes did not affect the "old", repeatedly proven functions. On the other hand, new functions require manual testing, simultaneously implement the technology of their verification and creates scenarios that will be used to be used with automated testing using the AQA system.
The automated testing system theoretically allows you to guarantee one hundred percent quality system, you only need to make an exhaustive script library. Traditionally it is believed that the quality of the application is a function of tests. But for a complex multifunctional software product, such as "galaxy", creating a similar library is an extremely difficult task that requires colossal resources. Therefore, we adhere to another approach: most errors are detected and eliminated in the early stages of development, and during the integral testing, a priority role is assigned to complex tests that verify the implementation of business processes as a whole, as well as the interaction of various system modules. The development of such scenarios are engaged in testers who have a rich experience of automating large enterprises of various industries and ownership forms.
Another source of development of high-quality tests is interaction with units directly working with clients, in particular, with consulting and commissioning services. A description of business processes implemented in the implementation of the system at a particular enterprise - desired food for testers. And created on the basis of this description of the script for automated testing - a guarantee of reliable operation of our software at this enterprise.
The automated system "Problems and Solutions" (PIR) is a means of operational quality control and reliability, which is actively used during testing for registration and statistical processing of information on found and corrected errors. At the same time, the PIR is a system of operational feedback with consumers. Wherever the problem arose: in Moscow, Minsk, Vladivostok, it quickly falls into the development center. The rate of receipt is actually determined by the speed of transmitting information on communication lines, while the person responsible for solving the problem is immediately known and are controlled.
Testing methodological support includes: the technology set forth in regulations and instructions, business processes library and automated testing scripts, as well as the results of the analysis of the causes of errors.
So, before you get the status of a commercial, the system version runs six levels of testing, each of which is detected by a number of errors. The methodological base used at different levels has its own characteristics and should help reduce the number of errors when moving from level to level. In particular, testing conditions and test metrics correspond to the specification of the development phase. Each error is subjected to post-proactive analysis, its causes are found and spaces in the methodologies that have not allowed to detect an error in previous levels. Thus, the main goal is achieved - detecting the maximum number of critical errors at the lowest levels of testing and their elimination of its final stage.
Testing technology depends, in particular, on the amount of information stored in the test database (database). An indispensable element of testing is to check the performance of the system on an empty base, which actually represents a model of activity of the new client: the system must be configured, fill out the main directories, enter the initial data. For a detailed verification of complex business processes requiring configuration to regional or industry specifics, databases are used up to 1 GB). At all levels of integral testing, a number of reference and specific tests are performed for a database set. Thus, another dimension (database) is added to the graph (Fig. 2). As a result, testing becomes "three-dimensional".
This gives an additional effect: checking the completeness and consistency of the setup parameters - the setting determines the algorithms for performing many functions. Problems are also excluded when updating versions, since testing of new versions on the "old" bases allows to ensure high reliability of conversion.
Careful software testing is the most obvious way to ensure its reliability. Indeed, testing is the diagnosis of the disease, the analysis of symptoms, the identification of the source and the definition of the best treatment technique. However, preventive measures are equally important.
The prevention system of "Disease" includes a number of organizational events, the essence of which is reduced to ensuring reliability and quality at all stages of development, ranging from design. Today, the ratio of time spent on designing, coding and testing is 40%, 20% and 40%, respectively. Design is divided into several stages: the development of a technical task, its analysis, creation of a layout of the system. The results of each stage are subject to expertise, cross-inspection and mutually agreed. The presence of detailed projected project documentation significantly reduces the likelihood of errors and serves as an additional guarantee of the reliability of the product.
Would it seemingly what interest lighting the issue of testing is one of the most important aspects of developing software for our customers? They are interested in the final result: the system should reflect specific business processes, to be easy to learn, dynamically respond to changes in life realities. And not so important what means all this will be achieved. However, it is certainly necessary to pay attention to work aimed at improving the quality of software. And for this there is at least two reasons:
The Corporate System "Problems and Solutions" (PIR) is an instrumental means of registration and processing of information about all types of problems arising during the development and operation of software products (errors, development proposals, refinement applications). The system is operated in the development centers and in regional promotion departments. The exchange of accumulated data, carried out at least twice a day, provides operational receipt of information from any region. Entering information is carried out by employees of a corporation receiving it from clients (on any communication channel and in any form), or in the process of direct work with software products. The problem is addressed to one of the leaders of the development teams, which is responsible for solving a registered problem. The decision-making process is regulated and monitored by timing. To control and analyze, obtaining a variety of reporting forms
Testing as one of the elements of the quality system
Terms Theory of systems and systemic analysis, despite the period of more than 25 years of their use, still not found a generally accepted, standard interpretation.
The reason for this fact is the dynamic of processes in the field of human activity and in the fundamental ability to use a systematic approach in almost any human task.
The general theory of systems (OTS) is a scientific discipline that studies the most fundamental concepts and aspects of systems. It studies various phenomena, distracted by their specific nature and based only on the formal relationships between the various components of their factors and on the nature of their changes under the influence of external conditions, while the results of all observations are explained only by the interaction of their components, for example, the nature of their organization and operation, and With the help of direct treatment of the nature of the mechanisms involved in the phenomena (whether they are physical, biological, environmental, sociological, or conceptual)
For UTS, the object of the study is not "physical reality", but "system", i.e. Abstract formal relationship between basic signs and properties.
In the system approach, the study object is represented as a system. The very concept of the system can be attributable to one of the methodological concepts, since the consideration of the object is investigated as a system or refusal of such consideration depends on the task of research and the researcher himself.
There are many system definitions.
The terms "attitude" and "interaction" are used in the broadest sense, including the entire set of related concepts such as limit, structure, organizational communication, compound, dependence, etc.
Thus, the system S is an ordered pair S \u003d (A, R), where A is a plurality of elements; R is a plurality of relationship between A.
The system is a complete, holistic set of elements (components), interrelated and interacting with each other so that the system function can be implemented.
The study of the object as a system involves the use of a number of submission systems (categories) among which the mains are:
Consider the definitions of other concepts closely related to the system and its characteristics.
An object.
The object of knowledge is part of the real world, which is allocated and perceived as a single whole for a long time. The object can be material and abstract, natural and artificial. Really, the object has an infinite set of properties of various nature. In practically in the process of cognition, the interaction is carried out with a limited set of properties lying in the attacks of their perception and necessity for the purpose of knowledge. Therefore, the system as an object image is set on a finite set of selected properties to observe.
External environment.
The concept of "system" arises there and then, where and when we materially or speculately carry out a closed border between unlimited or some limited multiple elements. Those elements with their respective mutual conditionality that fall inside is to form a system.
Those elements that remain outside the border form a set called in the theory of systems "systemic surroundings" or simply "surroundings" or "external environment".
From these reasoning, it follows that it is unthinkable to consider the system without its external environment. The system forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, while being the leading component of this impact.
Depending on the environmental impact and the nature of the interaction with other systems, systems can be positioned by increasing rank as follows:
Any system can be considered, on the one hand, as a higher order subsystem (oversystem), and on the other, as the supervision of the lower order system (subsystem). For example, the "Production Workshop" system enters as a subsystem to a higher rank system - "Firm". In turn, the "Firm" superdiesystem may be a "corporation" subsystem.
Usually, as subsystems, more or less independent parts of the systems are highlighted on certain features that have relative independence, a certain degree of freedom.
Component - any part of the system entering into certain relations with other parts (subsystems, elements).
Element Systems is part of the system with uniquely defined properties that perform certain functions and not subject to further partition within the framework of the task being solved (from the point of view of the researcher).
The concept of the element, subsystem, the system is interrepected, the system can be considered as an element of a higher order system (metacious system), and an element with in-depth analysis as a system. The fact that any subsystem is simultaneously and relative to an independent system leads to 2 aspects of the study of systems: on macro and micro-levels.
When studying on the macro-level focus on the interaction of the system with an external environment. Moreover, a higher level system can be considered as part of the external environment. With this approach, the main factors are the target function of the system (purpose), the conditions for its functioning. At the same time, the elements of the system are studied from the point of view of their organization into a single whole, the effect on the function of the system as a whole.
On the micro level, the internal characteristics of the system, the nature of the interaction of elements among themselves, their properties and conditions of functioning become the main.
Both components are combined to study the system.
System structure.
Under the structure of the system means a sustainable set of relations, which remains for a long time unchanged, at least during the observation interval. The system structure is ahead of a certain level of complexity in terms of relationships on a set of system elements or that is equivalent to the level of diversity of the object manifestations.
Communication - These are elements that make direct interaction between the elements (or subsystems) of the system, as well as with the elements and subsystems of the environment.
Communication is one of the fundamental concepts in the system approach. The system as a single whole exists due to the presence of links between its elements, i.e., in other words, communications express the laws of the system functioning. Communications are distinguished by the nature of the relationship as direct and inverse, but by type of manifestation (descriptions) as deterministic and probabilistic.
Direct links Designed for a given functional transmission of a substance, energy, information, or combinations thereof - from one element to another in the direction of the main process.
FeedlesBasically, reporting functions are performed, reflecting the change in the state of the system as a result of the control influence on it. The opening of the feedback principle was an outstanding event in the development of technology and had exceptionally important consequences. Control processes, adaptation, self-regulation, self-organization, development is impossible without the use of feedback.
Fig. - Example of feedback
Using feedback, the signal (information) from the system output (control object) is transmitted to the control agency. Here, this signal containing information on the operation performed by the control object is compared with the signal specifying the content and scope (for example, a plan). In the event of mismatch between the actual and planned state of work, measures are taken to eliminate it.
The main features of feedback are:
Violation of inverse relations in socio-economic systems for various reasons leads to difficult consequences. Separate local systems lose the ability to evolve and thin perception of new trends, promising development and scientifically based prediction of their activities for a long period of time, effective adaptation to the ever-changing conditions of the external environment.
The peculiarity of socio-economic systems is that it is not always possible to clearly express feedbacks, which in them, as a rule, are long, pass through a number of intermediate links, and their clear view is difficult. The controlled values \u200b\u200bthemselves are often not amenable to clear definition, and it is difficult to establish a plurality of restrictions imposed on the parameters of the controlled values. The actual reasons for the exit managed variables for the established limits are also not always known.
Determined (rigid) Communication, as a rule, uniquely determines the cause and consequence, gives a clearly determined formula of the interaction of elements. Probabilistic (flexible) communication determines the implicit, indirect dependence between the elements of the system. The theory of probability offers a mathematical apparatus for the study of these links, called "correlations of dependencies".
Criteria - Symptoms for which an assessment of the compliance of the system functioning in the desired result (target) for specified restrictions is made.
System efficiency - the ratio between the resultant (target) indicator of the functioning of the system and is actually implemented.
Functioning Any arbitrarily selected system consists in the processing of input (known) parameters and known environmental impact parameters in the value of the output (unknown) parameters, taking into account the feedback factors.
Fig. - System functioning
entrance - Everything that changes when the process (operation) of the system changes.
Output - The result of the end state of the process.
CPU - Transfer to enter output.
The system communicates with the medium as follows.
The input of this system is at the same time the output of the preceding, and the output of this system is the subsequent input. Thus, the input and output are located at the system boundary and simultaneously perform the input and output functions of preceding and subsequent systems.
The system management is associated with the concepts of direct and feedback, restrictions.
Feedback - Designed to perform the following operations:
Limitation - ensures compliance between the system output and the requirement to it, as to the input to the subsequent system - the consumer. If the specified requirement is not performed, the restriction does not miss it through itself. The restriction, therefore, plays the role of coordination of the functioning of this system with the goals (needs) of the consumer.
Determining the functioning of the system is associated with the concept of a "problem situation", which occurs if there is a distinction between the necessary (desired) output and existing (real) entrance.
Problem - This is the difference between existing and desired systems. If this difference is not, then there is no problem.
Solve the problem - it means to adjust the old system or construct a new one desired.
System status It is called a set of essential properties that the system has at every moment of time.
System properties of social matter, social organizations are studied within the framework of a systemic approach, which performs the theoretical and methodological function of the knowledge and transformation of complex social systems. The word "system" - Greek origin (SYSTEMA), meaning composed of parts, compound. Systems are divided into natural and artificial. The first are natural, the second - social, created by man.
All that is not logged in and affects it or what the system itself affects, is called its external environment.
Depending on the degree of interaction with the external environment, open and closed systems differ. According to the degree of complexity of the system are divided into large and complex. Systems include those of them that are built to solve multipurpose tasks.
Systems consist of subsystems, each of which can be considered both separately and in their inseparable integrity. It is clear that in social systems, maintaining their integrity and qualitative definiteness is carried out at the level of not only self-regulation, but also targeted impact. Therefore, each social system consists of two independent, but interconnected subsystems: managed and managing. The managed subsystem includes all elements that ensure the direct process of creating material and spiritual goods or the provision of services. The control subsystem includes all elements that ensure the process of targeted impact. The most important element of the management system is the organizational structure of management.
Each of the named subsystems has its own characteristics. At the same time, speaking of the system and the totality of its elements, it should be paid to the fact that in the most social system and in its large parts (controlled and control subsystems), uniform groups of elements forming peculiar systems of lower levels are clearly visible: technical, technological, organizational , Economic and social.
The technical system is a proportional combination of individual technical means from a plurality of individual species of various equipment. For example, in socio-economic systems, it expresses the production facilities of the enterprise, organization, industries with which people in the process of material production are capable of producing a given quality in a certain amount.
The technological system is based on dividing activities, material and spiritual production at the stage and processes. The elements of the technological system are labor objects, individual operations and procedures. This system is a set of rules and norms that determine the sequence of operations in the process of material or spiritual production and management of them.
The organizational system through the development and structure of management, relevant provisions and instructions allows us to rationally use technical means, labor objects, information, squares and labor resources.
The economic system is the unity of economic and financial processes and connections.
The social system is a combination of social relations formed as a result of joint activities of people and social groups.
All systems are technical, technological, organizational, economic and social - interrelated. In its unity, they constitute a holistic organism. At the same time, the technical, technological and organizational system in the aggregate provide and characterize the organizational and technical side of the management, and the economic and social - socio-economic.
The relationship between managing and managed systems is carried out using information that serves as the basis for the development of management impacts and solutions coming from the control system to managed for execution.
Each social system self-governing. At the same time, in the process of control, it is experiencing external influences. External and internal influences in any system are closely related to each other and mutually determined: the more significant one, the less the role of another.
The activities and development of the system as a whole are subordinated to the global goal, and its elements and subsystems have local tasks, the solution of which is subject to their existence. The functioning of such systems and the management of them are not only the process of preserving their integrity and certainty, but also the process of transfer to a new quality state.
Characteristic features of scientific social management are: the knowledge and conscious use of public laws, the patterns of management, the provision of systemic and continuity of the process of management impacts, modeling managed objects and subjects of management, taking into account quantitative and qualitative measurements of both objects and management subjects.
Thus, social management theory establishes laws and patterns, the principles of the development of social processes and phenomena, as well as the construction of the management systems themselves. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the principle of self-organization of social systems. For the processes of self-organization in space and time, the following conditions are necessary: \u200b\u200b1) the relative openness of the system, which involves the presence of certain flows into it and from it (resources and energy, capital, goods, human resources in their connection with other societies, etc.) ; 2) the nonlinearity of the law of the interaction of various parts of the social system; 3) the presence of an element of chance (for example, an accident rate of natural origin, chance of scientific and technical inventions and the consequences of their use, etc.); 4) certainty the range of system parameters that play an important role in the qualitative behavior of the social system, the so-called control parameters. At the same time, if the control parameters have critical points, beyond which the behavior of the system changes radically and new varieties of solutions arise, then such control parameters are called bifurcation. Managing (bifurcation) parameters of the macroeconomic level can be the efficiency of production interaction, any integrated characteristics (for example, gross national product), etc. On the micro level, these can be various characteristics of social interaction.
The idea of \u200b\u200bself-organization in no way contradicts the idea of \u200b\u200bmanagement, since the quality, path and the result of self-organizing behavior will be different if at least one of the conditions listed above is changing. The management part of the Society (Organizational and Management Tip), which carries out the principal impact through legal norms (laws) and regulation of various "streams" of social information and regulation of various "flows" of social information. One thing is no doubt that the relationship of two elements of a complex social system is its object and subject - the main issue of management, creation and improvement of its system.
The following approaches to the study of social management problems are distinguished:
The state of management relations, the integrity of a complex social system, first of all, depend on the balance of the two subsystems: the object and the subject of social management.
The control crisis, first of all, is explained by everything aggravating contradiction between the object and the management subject.
The management of the management is public relations, public processes, social organizations, social resources and the person himself, inevitably entering social relations participating in public processes and social organizations in the implementation of resources. The subject of the control must be realized and adequately express in scientific uniforms all that happens in the control object to change its efforts.
It should be emphasized that there are no people in the center of such an impact, as it is considered, but the relationship that is in a constant change, where various events and phenomena in time and space occur. They are characterized by a certain sequence, have causes, stages of development. The links between events and phenomena may be stable and unstable, natural and random. It should be emphasized that in cases where the relationship between them expresses a certain tendency to preserve or change in the position of people in society, in their lifestyle, trends are characterized by a significant length in time, the sequence of stages, statistical sustainability, in these conditions it can be characterized as Public process. It is the processes that are the main object of social management, the impact on which in accordance with their internal logic of development leads to a change in the behavior of people who are included in the public relations.
Classification of social processes has different bases.
The second component of the control object is resources. The concept of resources has two values: (1) reserves, funds used if necessary; (2) The limit value of some means (for example, the daily reserve of time is 24 hours).
The concept of resources is close in their meaning the concept of reserves. Sometimes they are used as synonyms. Reserves (lat. Reservere - Save, Save): (1) The source from where new forces are drawn from; (2) stock of something in case of necessity; (3) Possible means that have not yet used. These concepts are closely adjacent to the concept of potential (lat. Potentia - power) is a set of all means, reserves, sources that can be used if necessary with any purpose.
Social resources can be defined as the stocks of the creative energy of the personality (social, educational, activity), social organization and society as a whole - the Commonwealth of people, organizations, institutions, social groups. These human energy reserves are huge, some scientists compare them with the energy of the atomic nucleus. One of the most relevant today is the problem of "unpacking" of this huge potential, the disclosure of the creative possibilities of man, social organizations and the directions of these sources of progress in the constructive channel.
Before controlling, there is a problem to find mechanisms of more complete use of social resources. To this end, they must be divided into (1) motivational, (2) intellectual, (3) information, (4) Communicative, (5) Socio-psychological, (6) competitive, (7) demographic, (8) socio-ecological , (9) activities, (10) innovative, (11) strategic, (12) personnel, (13) organizational, (14) management, (15) scientific.
Social resources make up the kernel of the entire resource system without connecting which it is impossible to obtain effective results from the sale of any types of resources - material, economic, natural, etc.
Social resources have a number of features that fundamentally distinguishes them, for example, from natural. First, natural resources are exhausted, and social practically no. So, managerial, organizational, scientific resources can exist anything for a long time, regardless of whether we use them or not. Secondly, it is not only partially, but also the entire renewable resources. In the process of its use, they tend not to destroy, but to an increase. Thirdly, if natural resources can be stored for a long time, then social begin to degrade and depreciate as a result of their abnormality. Fourth, with respect to social resources, the criteria of "sufficiency - insufficiency" are more complex and until the end are developed. Fifth, they possess not only a large variety, but also interchangeability.
It is necessary to recognize that all objects of management influences in one way or another are their subjects. This, for example, refers to social organizations that are created, are designed in the process of managerial labor, but arising, having a huge opposite effect on the development of social processes, the implementation of numerous resources of society.
And the study of a person as a subject of management is of particular importance, although it is a certain extent and the object of management impact, because people, social organizations are the object of control.
It is very important to emphasize that the personality is not only a product of public relations, it not only masters the norms and values \u200b\u200bof the social environment in the process of socialization, but, firstly, it realizes itself every time in a specific form, depending on its creative potential, secondly , experiencing social influence and revealing its vitality, forming the will, convictions, its inner world in the installations, in behavior, personality has an opposite effect on the social space, transforming it in accordance with the values \u200b\u200bgenerated.
One-sided consideration of man conditioning with objective circumstances to this day often looks like "programming" man by being, almost no place for free self-development, self-realization of personal potential.
Usually, operating the concept of personality, do not consider such characteristics as temperament, individuality, character, emotional features, natural deposits and innate properties, based on which the abilities of the personality are formed, its value orientations, which are the mechanism of self-defense of the personality from the destructive impacts of social space, influence which is constantly increasing.
Today, the problem is to learn how to measure the difference in creative potentials of personalities, timely identify the multidirectional of the creative gifting of people from childhood and create conditions (social and personal) for the most complete implementation for the benefit of society, including in the field of management. This is the key to successful solving global problems arising on the eve of the XXI century.
The enormous potential of creatively gifted people, the more talented, may have to be put in the service of society, the management of its public forces. For this, other philosophy and culture of the human community are needed: gifts, talentedness are not replaced by anywhere in science, nor in art or in management activities. They are nationwide. Therefore, support for gifted, creatively rich people is the case of all society, his policies, projects and support programs. The principle of the existence of a modern society, who wants to survive and secure sources of development, is to provide all personalities of social equal conditions at the start for self-realization, the possibility of a rich living choice, vocational and managerial, among other things, to promote self-realization in various roles and functions. Under such conditions, the most worthy will undoubtedly take a place intended in life, the most talented and gifted will become recognized leaders, including management. Therefore, colleges, lyceums, special managerial and scientific schools for gifted people are necessary. But access to them should be socially universal. The selection criterion is the degree of rival, the professional suitability of a person for future work. The other is not given, otherwise the development of development will be observed, the increase in the destructive trends. Therefore, in the Center for Social Administration, the personality of the manager, its professional and leadership qualities, which are studied today by special sectors of scientific knowledge within the framework of the general management theory.
As a general pattern, the continuous complication of the management facility, which is associated with the fact that public processes are becoming increasingly dynamic, complex, nonlinear, and therefore everything is lenable to adequate recognition, which places increasingly high demands on the management relations within the control system. The latter have a complex internal structure:
In addition, social management relations are divided into:
The management system in which management functions are implemented includes: specialists combined into controls; Organizational and computing equipment, links between management bodies used by a complex of management methods, communication of an object with an external environment, management information streams, logistical resources to achieve permanent purposes, etc. It also includes social organizations whose bodies in the process Management and organizational activities take management decisions, organize control over their execution and constantly improve this process, carrying out feedback.
Management and organizational relations are implemented in management activities, the organic part of which is organizational. They cannot be separated from one another because this is a single process: management certainly implies organizational efforts, the organization does not make sense without control. All numerous elements of the management system related to each other can represent a holistic education only as a result of the management organization. Therefore, maintaining the organized integrity of the management system, its stability is one of the most important management tasks, first of all its component - an organization that is intended to develop concrete measures to achieve their goals, divide the tasks for individual operations, to find resources, distribute functions, coordinate interactions various divisions.
The approval that management work cannot be reduced to an organization, but undoubtedly is that after solving meaningful management issues: definitions of objectives, information and analytical activities, making management decisions, where the organizational aspect is also present - the significance of the latter increases repeatedly. This is due to the implementation of all control functions in the complex in practice, with the receipt of an integral end management result, with the organization of the implementation of decisions. It can only be conditionally assumed that after determining the goals and objectives of management, refinement of its functions and finding methods for their implementation, management is largely reduced to organizational activities.
At this stage, a certain type of work is particularly intensified, more related to the streamlining of all bonds of the object and the control entity. If at the stage of targetting, assessment of the problem situation, the organizational structure is only consistent, then at the decision-made decisions, it should act as a well-established organism that can ensure the interaction of all units of the management system, coordinate the interaction of various structural units, to find resources, motivate individual people to work. etc. It is clear that without this, an effective managerial result is impossible.
Management work is primarily associated with the knowledge of the trends, the patterns of development of social life and with an assessment on this basis of the current socio-economic, political and spiritual and cultural situation. The latter constitutes the discrepancy between the goal and the real state of affairs and determines the problem to achieve which and the decision is made. In the process of knowledge and analysis, the management entity makes a number of operations, actions. Their sequence is related to the fact that any control cycle includes a number of stages, stages that are consistently followed by one by one.
Seriously replacing the control cycle stages correspond to operations that are characterized as control functions. These include a management decision feature, an information function, an organizational, regulating, corrective, control. The implementation of these functions is the work on management.
So, under the control system, we understand, first of all, the unity of the subject and the management facility, which is achieved as a result of not only self-regulation in complex social systems, but also the focused impact of the management object for the subject. The quality of this impact, first of all, depends on: management and organizational relations, on the content of management and organizational activities in which they are implemented; From the feasibility of actions of the Directorate of Management, its main components (governing bodies, social organizations in general, individuals - managers), which carry out management and organizational work, take management decisions and achieve a particular managerial result.
General characteristics and classification of systems
System: Definition and Classification
The concept of the system refers to the number of fundamental and is used in various scientific disciplines and spheres of human activity. Famous phrases "Information System", "Man-Machine System", "Economic System", "Biological System" and many others illustrate the prevalence of this term in different substantive areas.
In the literature, there are many definitions that there is a "system". Despite the differences in the formulation, all of them in one way or another are based on the original translation of the SYSTEMA Greek word - an integer composed of parts connected. We will use the following sufficiently general definition.
System- A combination of objects united by bonds so that they exist (function) as a single whole, acquiring new properties that are not available in these objects separately.
Note on the new properties of the system in this definition is a very important feature of a system that distinguishes it from a simple set of unrelated elements. The presence of a system of new properties that are not the sum of the properties of its elements is called Emergenity (for example, the performance of the team of the team does not reduce the sum of the performance of its elements - members of this collective).
Objects in systems can be both material and abstract. In the first case talk about material (empirical) systems; In the second - about abstract systems. Abstract systems include theories, formal languages, mathematical models, algorithms, etc.
Systems. Principles of systemism
To highlight systems in the surrounding world, you can use the following principles of systemism.
The principle of external integrity - isolation systemsfrom the environment. The system interacts with the environment as a whole, its behavior is determined by the state of the medium and the state of the entire system, and not some separate part.
Separation system In the environment has its own goal, i.e. The system is characterized by the appointment. Other characteristics of the system in the surrounding world are its input, output and internal state.
An input of an abstract system, for example, some mathematical theory, is the formulation of the problem; The output is the result of solving this problem, and the assignment will be the class of tasks solved within the framework of this theory.
The principle of internal integrity is the stability of the links between the parts of the system. State of itself systems It depends not only on the state of its parts - elements, but also on the state of ties between them. That is why the properties of the system are not reduced to the simple sum of the properties of its elements, the properties that absent in the elements are separately appear in the system.
The presence of stable bonds between system elements determines its functionality. The violation of these links may lead to the fact that the system will not be able to perform the functions assigned to it.
The principle of hierarchyism is the system in the system, you can select subsystems, defining for each of them your input, output, purpose. In turn, the system itself can be considered as part of a larger systems.
Further partition by subsystems on the part will lead to the level on which these subsystems are called the elements of the source system. Theoretically, the system can be broken into small parts, apparently, infinitely. However, almost this will lead to the fact that elements will appear, whose relationship with the source system will be difficult with its functions. Therefore, the element of the system consider such smaller parts, which have some qualities inherent in the system itself.
Important in the study, design and development of systems is the concept of its structure. System structure- A combination of its elements and sustainable links between them. To display the structure of the system, graphic notations (languages), structural schemes are most often used. At the same time, as a rule, the representation of the system structure is performed on several levels of detail: first describe the links of the system with an external environment; Then a diagram is drawn with the allocation of the largest subsystems, then - for the subsystems, their schemes are built, etc.
Such detail is the result of a consistent structural analysis of the system. Method structural system analysisit is a subset of system analysis methods in general and applies, in particular, in programming engineering, when developing and implementing complex information systems. The main idea of \u200b\u200bstructural system analysis is the phased detailing of the study (simulated) system or process, which begins with a general review of the object object, and then implies its consistent refinement.
IN system approachto solve research, design, industrial and other theoretical and practical tasks, the analysis stage along with the stage of synthesis form the methodological concept of the solution. In the study (design, development) of systems at the analysis stage, the initial (developed) system is divided into part for its simplification and consistent solution of the problem. At the synthesis stage, the results obtained, the individual subsystems are connected together by establishing links between the entrances and the outputs of the subsystems.
It is important to note that the partition systems parts will give different results depending on who and for what purpose it performs this partition. Here we are talking only about such partitions, the synthesis after which allows you to get a source or conceived system. This does not apply, for example, "Analysis" of the computer system with a hammer and chisel. So, for a specialist introducing an automated information system at the enterprise, information links between enterprise divisions will be important; For a specialist supply department - links that reflect the movement of material resources in the enterprise. As a result, you can get different variants of the system structural schemes, which will contain different links between its elements, reflecting a particular point of view and the purpose of the study.
Representation systemsIn which the mainstream is the display and study of its connections with an external environment, with external systems, is called a representation at the macro level. Representation of the internal structure of the system is a representation at the micro level.
Classifucia Systems
Classification systemsit implies the separation of the entire set of systems to various groups - classes with common features. The classification of systems can be based on various signs.
In the most general case, two large class of systems can be distinguished: abstract (symbolic) and material (empirical).
By the origin of the system is divided on natural systems(created by nature), artificial, as well as systems of mixed origin, in which are present both elements of natural and elements made by man. Systems that are artificial or mixed are created by a person to achieve their goals and needs.
We give the brief characteristics of some common types of systems.
Technical system It is a interrelated, interdependent complex of material elements that solve some task. Such systems include a car, building, computer, radio communication system, etc. A person is not an element of such a system, and the technical system itself refers to the artificial class.
Technological system - rule system, norms that determine the sequence of operations in the production process.
Organizational system In general, it is a lot of people (teams), interconnected by certain relations in the process of some activities created and managed by people. The famous combinations "Organizational and Technical, Organizational-Technological System" are expanding the understanding of the organizational system by means and methods of professional activities of members of organizations.
Other name - organizational and economic The system is used to designate systems (organizations, enterprises) involved in the economic processes of creating, distribution, exchange of material goods.
Economic system- a system of productive forces and production relations, developing in the process of production, consumption, distribution of material goods. More common socio-economic systems are additionally social connections and elements, including relations between people and teams, working conditions, recreation, etc. Organizational and economic systems are functioning in the production of goods and / or services, i.e. As part of some economic system. These systems are of the greatest interest as objects of implementation. economic information systems(EIS), which are computerized collection, storage, processing and dissemination systems. A private interpretation of EIS is systems intended for automating enterprises management tasks (organizations).
According to the degree of complexity, simple, complex and very complex (large) systems are distinguished. Simple systems Characterized by a small number of internal connections and relative ease of mathematical description. It is characteristic of them is the presence of only two possible states of performance: when the system fails, the system or completely loses performance (the ability to perform its purpose), or continues to perform the specified functions in full.
Complex systemsthey have an extensive structure, a wide variety of elements and connections and a variety of operability (more than two). These systems are amenable to mathematical description, as a rule, with the help of complex mathematical dependencies (deterministic or probabilistic). Complex systems include almost all modern technical systems (TV, machine, spacecraft, etc.).
Modern organizational and economic systems (large enterprises, holdings, manufacturing, transport, energy companies) are among the very complex (large) systems. The following signs are characteristic of such systems:
the complexity of the destination and the diversity of the functions performed;
large sizes of the system by the number of elements, their relationships, inputs and outputs;
the complex hierarchical structure of the system, which makes it possible to select several levels with sufficiently independent elements on each of the levels, with its own objectives of elements and features of operation;
the presence of a common goal of the system and, as a result, centralized management, subordination between elements of different levels in their relative autonomy;
the presence in the system of active elements - people and their teams with their own objectives (which, generally speaking, may not coincide with the goals of the system itself) and behavior;
the variety of types of relationships between the elements of the system (material, information, energy connections) and the system with the external environment.
Due to the complexity of the purpose and processes of operation, the construction of adequate mathematical models characterizing the dependencies of the weekend, input and internal parameters for large systems is not fulfilled.
According to the degree of interaction with the external environment distinguish open systems and closed systems. The closed is called the system, any element of which has connections only with the elements of the system itself, i.e. The closed system does not interact with the external environment. Open systems interact with the external environment, exchanging with substance, energy, information. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment and are open.
According to the nature of the behavior, the system is divided into deterministic and non-deterministic. Determined are those systems in which the components interact with each other exactly in a certain way. The behavior and condition of such a system can be unambiguously predicted. When non-deterministic systems there is no such unequivocal prediction.
If the behavior of the system is subject to probabilistic laws, then it is called probabilistic. In this case, the prediction of the behavior of the system is performed using probabilistic mathematical models. It can be said that probabilistic models are a certain idealization that allows you to describe the behavior of non-deterministic systems. Practically assigning the system to deterministic or non-deterministic depends on the tasks of the study and the details of the system consideration.
The system is unity consisting of interrelated elements, each of which brings something specific in the unique characteristics of the whole.
The system has a pronounced systemic property that does not have one of its elements separately.
The system is a set of elements in certain relations and connections with each other, forming a single integer for performing certain functions.
The structure of the system includes its elements, the relationship between them and the attributes of these connections.
The element of the system is its simplest indivisible part. In order to select the system element, you first need to divide the system on the subsystems that are capable of performing relatively independent functions.
Communication expresses relationships between the elements of the system.
Communication attributes are focus, strength and character, therefore, the following types of ties are distinguished.
1. By direction:
- aimed links (direct and inverse);
- non-directional connections.
2. According to:
- weak;
- Strong.
3. By nature:
- communication of subordination (linear and functional);
- Communication communication.
The organization of the system is a combination of links between its elements, characterized by a certain order, internal properties, focus on functioning.
There are systems of various kinds (different nature): biological, technical, socio-economic, etc.
In the course of the study of various systems, general features were identified, characteristic of systems of various nature. In particular, they include:
1) the integrity of the system (all of its parts serve to achieve a single goal and possess some common properties, signs and behavior);
2) the value (scale) of the system (determined by the variety and number of components of its elements);
3) the complexity of the system (the presence of a large number and diversity of links between the elements both vertically and horizontally.
In this connection, the change in any one component will attract a change in other);
4) the behavior of the system at any time is probabilistic;
5) the presence of elements of a competitive situation (characteristic primarily for the most complex systems and assumes that there are necessarily elements that seek to reduce the efficiency of the system);
6) a division (the possibility of dismembering the system into components components);
7) isolation (a set of elements forming the system; links between them can be protected from an external environment and considering isolated, but this isolation is relative (absolute for closed systems);
8) the multiplicity of the state of the parts of the whole (each element of the system has its behavior and a state other than others and the system as a whole);
9) structurality (any system has a structure, i.e., a set of links between parts of a whole);
10) hierarchy (any system can be consistently dissected to the components of its components from top to bottom - from more complex and large systems to subsystems, components, etc.);
11) Adaptability (the system has the ability to take adequate actions in response to the diverse actions of external and internal factors).
There are many classifications of systems depending on the objectives of the study, they are widely represented in the literature (see, for example,).
The generalized classification of types of systems is presented in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1. Classification of types of systems
Any control system in the simplest form can be represented as a set of two interacting subsystems: the control entity (control subsystem) and control object (controlled subsystem).
All organizations are open-type systems, closely interconnected with the external environment. On the basis of the system approach, the management process is being built and the objectives of the objectives are achieved.
Features of the organization as the economic system are as follows:
- variability of certain system parameters;
- the uniqueness and unpredictability of the system and at the same time, the presence of limit capabilities caused by the available resources;
- the ability to withstand the trend destructive system;
- ability to adapt to changing conditions;
- the ability to change the structure and form behavioral options;
- The ability and striving for the formation of goals within the system.
In the organization as a system distinguish the following elements:
1) functional areas of the organization;
2) elements of the production process;
3) controls.
The systematic approach to the study of the Organization requires the study of the entire combination of links that exist between individual divisions of the organization as a system. This relationship system is a form of existence of organizational relations and reflects the existence of an organization.
As part of the system of organizational relations (links), groups of homogeneous connections on any sign (classification), namely:
1) Classification in which various status is reflected:
- vertical connections (links between divisions of various levels);
- horizontal connections (links between the structural divisions of the same level);
2) Classification in areas of relations:
- direct links;
- Feedback.
Direct and feedback can be vertical and horizontal;
3) Communication Classification:
- Impact (unidirectional communication; The initiator of this connection can be divisions of various levels (may be vertically and horizontally, there may be a subject, and an object));
- opposition (negative feedback);
- Interaction (positive feedback).
The significance of studying the relationship system of relations of this classification is determined by the fact that the activities of any organization are the organization of the activities of all these links, the improvement of these relationships, i.e., the creation of conditions for the most complete manifestation of these connections.
The principle of feedback is the principle of any system.
The listed groups of relations (connections) form a system of internal communication within the organization.
External communications are of great importance for the organization. They have a great influence on the effectiveness of the organization's functioning. According to the nature of the influence, 2 groups of external relations are distinguished:
1) communication providing direct influence (suppliers, consumers, competitors, legislation, legislative base, etc.):
2) links that have an indirect influence (state of the global economy, political situation in the country, scientific and technical progress, etc.).
