LECTURE 6
TOPIC: Protection of water resources
PLAN:
1. Properties of water
2. Distribution and condition of water
3. World water reserves
4. Water resources of Russia
5. The role of water in nature
6. Composition of natural water
7. The water cycle in nature
8. The problem of lack of fresh water
9. Regulation of rational use and protection of water resources
10. Legal framework for the protection of water resources
11. Monitoring of water resources, water quality and pollution
Water reserves on Earth are enormous; they form the hydrosphere, one of the most powerful spheres of our planet. The hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere are interconnected, penetrate one another and are in constant, close interaction. All spheres contain water. Water resources are composed of static (secular) reserves and renewable resources. The hydrosphere unites the World Ocean, seas, rivers and lakes, swamps, ponds, reservoirs, polar and mountain glaciers, groundwater, soil moisture and atmospheric vapor.
1. Properties of water
Water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O); odorless liquid, tasteless, colorless (bluish in thick layers); with a density of 1 g / cm3 at a temperature of 3.98 ° C. At 0 ° C, water turns into ice, at 100 ° C - into steam. The molecular weight of water is 18.0153. By, the chemical composition of water can be represented by the formula H2On at the value NS, equal Not all water molecules are the same: along with ordinary molecules with a mass of 18, there are 21 and even 22 molecules.
Water is a unique substance in terms of its physical and chemical properties. The polarity of water molecules and the presence of "hydrogen" bonds between them determine its unique properties. The density of water is greatest at a temperature of 3.98 ° C, further cooling leads to its transition to ice and is accompanied by a decrease in density. A decrease in volume instead of expansion occurs when ice melts (melts). Water volatility is low. Water has anomalously high heat of fusion and specific heat; when ice melts, the heat capacity more than doubles. The heat capacity of water decreases with an increase in temperature to 27 ° C, and then begins to increase again. The viscosity of water (at temperatures from 0 to 30 ° C) decreases with increasing pressure.
2. Distribution and condition of water
Water is the most abundant substance on Earth. It is in three phases: gaseous (water vapor), liquid and solid. Distinguish between atmospheric, surface (hydrosphere) and underground water.
In the atmosphere, water is found in a vaporous state in the air envelope surrounding the Earth, in a droplet-liquid state - in clouds, fogs and in the form of rain, solid - in the form of snow, hail and ice crystals of high clouds.
In a liquid state, water is found in the hydrosphere: the water of the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds and reservoirs. In the solid state, water in the form of ice and snow is located at the poles of the planet, on mountain peaks, and in winter it covers large areas of water bodies. In the rocks of the lithosphere, water is found in the form of steam. There is capillary, gravitational, crystallization water.
3. World water reserves
The total area of oceans and seas is 2.5 times greater than the land area, and the volume of water on Earth is 1.5 109 km3. More than 95% of the water is salty. The oceans cover an area of 361 million km2, which is 70.8% of the Earth's surface. With an average ocean depth of 3800 m, the total volume of water reaches 1370 million km3. When calculating groundwater resources, it is assumed that the Earth's mantle contains 0.5% of water, the total volume of which is approximately 13-15 billion km3 of water. The possible inflow of deep waters into the earth's crust and onto the surface of the planet averages 1 km3 per year. With an average absolute age of the Earth of 3.5 billion years, the volume of surface water should be about 3.3 billion km3. The volume of free water in the earth's crust (groundwater) was estimated at 60 million km3.
4. Water resources of Russia
Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas belonging to three oceans. On the territory of Russia there are more than 2.5 million large and small rivers, more than 2 million lakes. Russia's water resources are composed of static (secular) and renewable. The former are considered to be relatively constant for a long time; renewable water resources are estimated by the volume of annual river flow. River runoff is formed due to melting snow and rainfall; swamps and groundwater serve as sources of river water.
focus on specific conditions, sources and causes of pollution;
scientific validity and the availability of effective control over the effectiveness of water protection measures.
The most important technological measures protection of water resources are the improvement of production technologies, the introduction of waste-free technologies. Currently, the circulating water supply system, or water reuse, is being applied and improved.
Since it is impossible to completely avoid water pollution, biotechnical measures are taken to protect water resources, wastewater treatment from pollution. The main cleaning methods are mechanical, chemical and biological.
With mechanical cleaning waste water, insoluble impurities are removed by means of grates, sieves, grease traps, oil traps, etc. Heavy particles are precipitated in sedimentation tanks. Mechanical cleaning manages to free water from undissolved impurities by 60-95%.
When chemical cleaning reagents are used that convert soluble substances into insoluble ones, bind them, precipitate and remove them from wastewater, which are purified by another 25-95%.
Biological treatment is carried out in two ways. The first in natural conditions - on specially prepared filtration (irrigation) fields with equipped maps, main and distribution canals. Purification occurs naturally by filtering water through the soil. The organic filtrate undergoes bacterial decomposition, oxygen, sunlight and is further used as fertilizer. A cascade of settling ponds is also used, in which self-purification of water occurs naturally. The second - an accelerated method of wastewater purification is carried out in special biofilters through porous materials from gravel, crushed stone, sand and expanded clay, the surface of which is covered with a film of microorganisms. The wastewater treatment process on biofilters is more intensive than on filtration fields.
Currently, almost no city can do without treatment facilities, and all of these methods are used in combination. This has a good effect.
9. Regulation of rational use and protection of water resources
Water protection is regulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on subsoil (groundwater is both minerals and water bodies) and water legislation, as well as a number of government and departmental regulations (instructions, regulations, basic and state standards). Water legislation is represented by the Water Code of the Russian Federation (November 1995) and federal laws and other regulatory legal acts adopted in accordance with it, as well as laws and regulatory legal acts of its subjects that regulate water relations. The water legislation of the Russian Federation regulates relations in the use and protection of water bodies in order to:
ensuring the rights of citizens to clean water and a favorable environment;
maintaining optimal conditions for water use;
maintaining the quality of surface and groundwater in a state that meets sanitary and environmental requirements;
protection of water bodies from pollution, clogging and depletion;
prevention or elimination of harmful effects of water, as well as conservation of biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems.
The Subsoil Law (February 1992) regulates relations related to the geological study, use and protection of groundwater as a mineral. It "contains the legal and economic foundations for the integrated rational use and protection of subsoil, ensuring the protection of the interests of the state and citizens of the Russian Federation, as well as subsoil users."
Requirements for the quality of drinking water are contained in the approved standards for maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of substances in water, water quality standards set out in GOSTs, Specifications, Requirements. These include: GOST 2874-82 “Drinking water. Hygienic requirements and quality control "," Sanitary rules and standards for the protection of surface waters from pollution "(SanPiN 4630-88). Sanitary rules and norms are set out in “Requirements for the quality of water in decentralized water supply. Sanitary protection of sources "(Sanitary rules and norms for drinking water, SanPiN 2.1.4.544-96); "Drinking water. Hygienic requirements for water quality of centralized drinking water supply systems. Quality control "(SanPiN 2.1.4.559-96).
The Gost provides for a certain system of certification of drinking water, materials, technological processes and equipment used in domestic drinking water supply. The main provisions were approved by the decree of the State Standard of Russia and the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of Russia (28.04.1995, No. 8/5).
The use of waters is regulated by licenses, which are of a permissive nature. The rights and obligations of the owner of the water body, the purposes and terms of its use, etc. are stipulated in the "Regulations on the procedure for licensing the use of subsoil" (approved by the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Federation No. on the procedure for licensing the use of subsoil "to subsoil plots provided for the extraction of groundwater, as well as other underground minerals classified as medicinal" (registered with the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation. Registration number 583 dated 26.05.94.).
Quality control and protection of surface waters. Surface waters (reservoirs and rivers) are the most susceptible to pollution and damage. According to the State Report "On the State of the Environment of the Russian Federation" (1998), the following are discharged into the surface waters of Russia (thousand tons per year): oil products 39.4, phosphorus - 60, phenol - 0.22, surface active substances (surfactants) - 8.9, copper compounds - 0.9, iron - 51.2, zinc - 1.6. The total volume of wastewater discharged into surface waters over the past decade on average per year is 50-60 km3. Petroleum products, phenols, easily oxidized organic substances, metal compounds, ammonium and nitrite nitrogen, as well as specific harmful substances - lignin, xanthates, formaldehyde, etc. are already the most common foreign substances in surface waters.
The quality of river waters of the main waterways of Russia is assessed on average as polluted: in the Volga and its tributaries the water is polluted, in the Oka it is highly polluted, in the Don and Terek - from dirty to extremely dirty, in the Dnieper - from slightly polluted to dirty.
All measures to protect them from pollution and depletion should be applied to surface waters in the most severe form. Surface waters are still the main source of drinking water, a connecting link with groundwater, fish stocks are concentrated in them, etc. Among the protective measures to regulate the quality and resources of surface waters, preventive measures should dominate, preventing the ingress of pollutants into water bodies and rivers. ... This is a transition to zero-waste technologies in industry and agriculture, as well as severe wastewater treatment.
Monitoring the quality and protection of groundwater. The reasons for the deterioration in the quality and pollution of groundwater are associated with the activities of industrial enterprises (37%), agriculture (16%) and housing and communal services (10%), also due to the joint impact of various objects (9%), pulling up substandard natural waters in violation of the regime operation of water intakes (13%).
The main substances that deteriorate the quality and pollute groundwater are: sulfates, chlorides, nitrogen compounds (nitrates, nitrites, ammonia and ammonium), oil products, phenols, iron compounds, heavy metals (copper, zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel and mercury ). Among 28% of the identified foci of pollution, the content of the above substances varies within 10-100 MPC, among 12% it exceeds 100 MPC.
Deterioration in the quality and pollution of groundwater is still in most cases local in nature and is mainly limited by the size of the source of pollution. Less than 10% of the total number of foci have an area exceeding 10 km2. Large foci of deterioration in the quality and pollution of groundwater still remain in the Murmansk and Leningrad regions. Dangerous centers remain in the Moscow and Perm regions, within the exhausted brown coal mine fields of the Tula region and oil fields in the Republic of Tatarstan, in the region of the cities of Volgograd, Volzhsky, Krasnodar, Orenburg, Magnitogorsk, Usolye-Sibirsky, Kemerovo, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Khabarovsk, etc. The greatest environmental hazard is the deterioration of the quality and pollution of groundwater at the intakes of drinking water supply, which was noted in 90 cities and towns, at 600 water intakes.
Measures for the protection of groundwater from depletion and pollution are subdivided into preventive and special, general and specific. TO preventive measures include the following:
careful selection of the location of the facility under construction, the anthropogenic impact of which on groundwater will be minimal;
equipping with appropriate equipment and compliance with sanitary protection zones;
taking into account the degree of protection of groundwater;
compliance with the operating mode determined by regulatory documents and the expertise of the State Commission for Reserves (GKZ);
organization and maintenance of groundwater monitoring. One of the most important preventive measures is the creation of sanitary protection zones (SPZ), which is regulated by the Regulation on the procedure for the design and operation of sanitary protection zones for water supply sources and water pipelines for household and drinking purposes. Water protection zones consist of three zones, special measures in which exclude the possibility of groundwater pollution. The first belt of water protection zones is a strict regime belt. It includes the territory where water intake, water supply and water supply facilities are located. The boundaries of the belt are set in the form of a fence at a distance of at least 30-50 m from the structures, depending on the degree of natural protection of the aquifer. For onshore (infiltration) water intake structures, the boundaries of the first belt include the entire territory between the river and the water intake facilities, but not more than 150 m. condition of water and protection of the territory. The second and third zones of water protection zones are zones of restrictions. They are designed to protect groundwater from microbial (second belt) and chemical (third belt) pollution. The areas of zones are determined based on the time it takes for pathogenic organisms to die, and chemical pollutants are completely adsorbed and neutralized.
In the second and third zones, construction, waste storage, and the placement of industrial and agricultural enterprises are prohibited. The improvement and sanitary condition of the territory is constantly monitored.
Special events for the protection of groundwater from pollution are aimed at isolating sources and foci of pollution, interception of polluted waters. When the water is depleted, measures are used to artificially replenish and increase the supply of groundwater. Timely development and application of measures for the utilization of mine and drainage waters, measures that reduce the use of fresh water for technical needs, for the careful use of water, and reduction of losses during its transportation and distribution are necessary.
Thus, groundwater protection includes general measures: strict observance of legislative acts, reduction of industrial waste, creation of waste-free production facilities - and specific ones: reuse of water, construction of treatment facilities, compliance with the rules in the exploration of groundwater, construction and operation of water intakes.
Quality and protection of waters of the seas and the World Ocean. Recently, pollution of the seas and the World Ocean as a whole (background pollution) is of great concern. The main sources of pollution are domestic and industrial wastewater (60% of large cities are concentrated in coastal areas), oil and oil products, and radioactive substances. Oil and radioactive contamination is especially dangerous. Enterprises of coastal cities throw into the sea thousands of tons of various, as a rule, untreated waste, including sewage. Contaminated river waters are carried out to the seas. Oil and oil products get into the water as a result of washing tanks, containers in which oil is transported. A huge amount of oil gets into the ocean and the seas in case of tanker accidents, oil pipelines in oil fields, during the exploration and operation of oil fields in the continental shelf zone. In case of oil well accidents, many thousands of tons of oil are thrown into the sea.
Pollution is the cause of the death of marine animals: crustaceans and fish, waterfowl, seals. There are known cases of death of about 30 thousand sea ducks, mass death of sea stars in the early 1990s. in the White Sea. There are frequent cases of beach closures due to hazardous concentrations of pollutants in sea water caused by numerous accidents of ships carrying oil and oil products.
The pollution of the waters of the World Ocean with radioactive substances occurs as a result of tests of atomic weapons. The contamination area after testing can reach 2.5 million km2. Accidents of nuclear submarines and ships with nuclear reactors, no doubt, are also important sources of radioactive contamination of large areas of the seas and oceans. In the 1980s. the practice of burying radioactive waste in containers, which were dumped into the deepest depths of the ocean. The world community has resisted this quite successfully. Pollution of sea water leads to the concentration of radioactive substances in plants and animals along the food chains. There are cases when the concentration of radioactive substances at the tops of trophic pyramids exceeded the background by more than 50 thousand times.
The degree of pollution of sea water largely depends on the attitude to this problem of the states bordering the seas and oceans. All inland and marginal seas of Russia are experiencing a powerful anthropogenic pressure, including numerous planned and emergency discharges of pollutants. The level of pollution of the Russian seas (with the exception of the White Sea), according to the State Report "On the State of the Environment of the Russian Federation", in 1998 exceeded the MPC for the content of hydrocarbons, heavy metals, mercury, phenols, surfactants (surfactants) on average in 3-5 times.
Measures for the protection of the waters of the seas and the oceans are to eliminate the causes of deterioration in the quality and pollution of waters. Special measures to prevent pollution of seawater should be envisaged in the exploration and development of oil and gas fields on the continental shelf. It is necessary to introduce a ban on the burial of toxic substances in the ocean, to maintain a moratorium on the testing of nuclear weapons under water. Rapid action should be taken to deal with accidents and disasters that release toxic products into the ocean. The problem of protecting the waters of the World Ocean is global, it concerns all states of the planet. To protect the waters of the World Ocean, joint efforts of all states of the world community, the UN and its subdivisions are required. To a large extent, such measures can be successful with the participation of states in international environmental programs that are developed and proposed by the relevant conventions and provided for by international agreements.
10. Legal framework for the protection of water resources
In the 1990s. in Russia, there have been serious changes in the organizational and functional structure of the ministries and departments responsible for the mineral resource base of Russia. Unfortunately, by 1999 the structure had not yet received its complete development. In the field of environmental management and protection of natural resources, coordination is carried out by the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) of the Russian Federation (according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, subsoil and water bodies are the subject of joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation, including the MNR and the constituent entities of the Federation).
In accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 05/17/97 No. 000, the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia, with the participation of federal bodies, develops the main directions of state policy in the field of use, protection and reproduction of natural resources. The task of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia also includes: development and implementation of state targeted programs for the use and protection of natural resources; preparation of proposals for improving the current legislation; development of regulatory and methodological documents for the use and protection of natural resources. The Ministry of Natural Resources makes decisions on the study and forecast of changes in the state of natural resources. A number of measures have been taken to reform territorial bodies and create a new management system for the state subsoil and water resources (restructuring).
For 1999, the main legislative and regulatory acts that regulate the protection of water resources are: the Law of the Russian Federation "On Subsoil", the Law of the Russian Federation "On the Protection of the Natural Environment" and the Water Code of the Russian Federation.
At the project level, the following legislative acts are at various stages of discussion and revision: “On licensing of the use of subsoil”, “On internal waters, the territorial sea and the contiguous zone of the Russian Federation”. Fundamental decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation were adopted on the relevant issues, the drafts of which were prepared by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia: “On the approval of the Regulation on the conduct of state monitoring of water bodies”, “On the approval of the Rules for the use of water bodies in state ownership, the establishment and revision of water use limits, the issuance of a water use license and administrative license "," On approval of the Regulation on the implementation of state control over the use and protection of water bodies "," On the procedure for the operation of reservoirs. " The draft government decree "On the concept of state policy in the field of reproduction, use and protection of natural resources" is being approved by the interested ministries and state committees. Introduced interdepartmental normative acts "Classification of operational reserves and predicted groundwater resources"; by-laws (explanatory) acts: "Instruction on the procedure for the approval and issuance of water use licenses for surface water bodies", "Methodological recommendations for state registration of water use licenses ...".
The world community in the field of environmental protection is guided by the Program of Action for the Implementation of Agenda 21, adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (1992). Russia takes an active part in the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), ensures obligations under international treaties (conventions and agreements): on wetlands of international importance; on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes; for the protection of the marine environment of the Baltic Sea region; to protect the Black Sea from pollution; to prevent marine pollution by dumping waste and other materials. In Russia, the project "Integrated environmental management of the Volga-Caspian region" is being implemented, projects of federal target programs are being developed: "Creation of a Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring", "Integrated Management of Coastal Areas of the Black and Azov Seas ...", "Provision of the Russian population with drinking water "," Improvement of the environment and the population of the Kemerovo region "," Revival of the Volga "," World Ocean "," Environmental safety of the Urals "," Creation and development of the EGSEM (Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 01.01.01, No. 000).
11. Monitoring of water resources, water quality and pollution
Monitoring - it is a system of observation and control over the state of the environment in order to develop measures to rationalize the use of natural resources, protect the natural environment, prevent critical situations, timely assess the state and predict changes, including the consequences of anthropogenic influences. There are the following types of monitoring: global (biosphere), geophysical, climatic, ecological, biological, natural and geological environment, etc. According to the coverage area - international, state, regional, national, local, impact. According to research methods - remote and direct. Objects of observation - the environment, soil, biological resources of land, forest, groundwater, etc.
Monitoring of water resources is understood as a system of continuous (current) and comprehensive monitoring of the state of water resources, control and accounting of quantitative and qualitative characteristics over time, interdependent effects and changes in consumer properties, as well as a system for forecasting conservation and development in different modes of use. Elements of this system have long existed in the ministries and departments of the natural resource complex. Systematic monitoring of the state of the subsoil and water resources is carried out by the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia and Roshydromet. On the territory of the Russian Federation, a system of state monitoring of the geological environment (GMGS) has been deployed, which also controls the “groundwater” block. The GMGS system includes about 15 thousand observation points, which are located in almost all regions of the country. The main tasks of the GMGS are: managing the structure at the regional level, providing information about the current state of the geological environment (including groundwater) and forecasts of its changes under the influence of natural and man-made factors, maintaining a specialized databank. An important element of the system is the State Bank for Digital Geological Information (GBTsGI).
State monitoring of water bodies (Roshydromet conducts observations at 4 thousand points - on rivers, lakes and reservoirs) includes surface waters of land, seas, water management systems and structures (including reservoirs).
The object of environmental monitoring is the assessment of its quality and the level of pollution as a prerequisite for making scientifically based decisions on the effectiveness of environmental protection measures. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” (1991), the State Service for Observing the State of the Environment (GOS) of Roshydromet became the organizational structure providing monitoring. The service consists of a number of systems, including observation of marine pollution (602 observation points), observation of surface water pollution (120 objects of observation of hydrobiological indicators, 1132 objects of observation of hydrochemical indicators).
QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL
1. Tell us how water is distributed on Earth. What does it matter?
2. How does the water cycle occur on the planet and what effect does it have on natural processes?
3. What is the composition of fresh water?
4. What are the reasons for the lack of fresh water in different regions of the Earth?
5. Which industries use the most water?
6. What substances that pollute water bodies are the most dangerous and why?
7. How can you determine the level of pollution of water bodies?
8. What does “self-purification of reservoirs” mean?
9. What methods of wastewater treatment are there?
10. How important is groundwater? How are they used and in what cases do they have to deal with them?
11. What is the reason for the depletion of groundwater?
12. How is the pollution of the waters of the World Ocean and inland seas?
The article contains information about the water resources of the planet. Provides statistics on the water content of the planet. The ways to prevent a global catastrophe are being specified.
Water resources - a set of waters of the hydrosphere, including the World Ocean, as well as ground and hidden waters of the continents.
Water is the most abundant substance on the planet. The most important is drinking water - without it, human existence is not possible. The main features of the resource are that it has no analogues and alternatives. Humanity has always used water in different areas of its activity: household and agriculture, industry.
Determining how many water reserves the Earth contains is not easy. This is due to the fact that water is in constant motion and is able to change its state to:
The total amount of water resources on Earth is defined as free water that is present in all known states and atmosphere.
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From an environmental point of view, the protection of water resources consists primarily in the direct provision of people with water for life and sanitary and hygienic needs. Apart from the huge changes in the planetary water of the oceans, seas, glaciers, surface water bodies and underground layers, which amount to 1.359 million m 3, the reserves of drinking water do not exceed 2-3%. According to the UN data, today about 1.3 billion people are not provided with drinking water either in quality or quantity.
The problem is that the fresh water necessary for human life is drunk, figuratively speaking, by his child - modern industry. Suffice it to say that 10 tons of pure water is used to obtain 1 ton of nylon, and 100 kg is used to make 1 kg of paper. In industrialized countries, 1.2 - 1.5 thousand m 3 of water is consumed per person per year. Until recently, the consumption of water per one resident of the city was 30 - 40 l / day, and today it is almost 300 l.
Aquatic ecosystems, which are located near urban settlements, have served for the disposal of household waste for a long time. The biological capabilities of aquatic ecosystems are so great that by a certain moment, using oxygen dissolved in water, they self-cleaned from household pollution.
The transition of mankind from primitive agriculture to industrialization manifested itself in a change in the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of waste, which sharply worsened the ecological state of water resources. Many rivers (or their individual sections) in Ukraine have actually turned into sewage and mine water collectors. These are Lugan, Ingulets, Seversky Donets, etc. Every year, mining enterprises of Kryvbas dispose of 200 thousand tons of chlorides into Ingulets, and the salinity of water here reaches 5 g at a rate of 1 g.
Small rivers of Ukraine, of which there are about 22.5 thousand, require special attention. They are polluted with pesticides, fertilizers and chemicals, as well as with wastewater from livestock complexes.
The main direction of protection of water resources should be the treatment of wastewater, both industrial and agricultural, and municipal. At the same time, it is necessary to actively introduce technologies that would reduce to a minimum chemical pollution of surface and ground waters.
If water, which has long been in short supply, was called "the resource of life", then the air was remembered only in our urbanized era. It is known that a person can live without food for several tens of days, and without air - only 5 - 7 minutes. And in addition, a person needs clean air, which, especially in cities and industrial centers, is lacking.
American scientists have calculated that in the United States, the amount of pollutants that are released into the air exceeded 200 million tons, that is, almost 1 ton for each inhabitant of the country. If all pollutant emissions are taken as 100%, then the share of transport will be 60.6%, industry - 12.2%, thermal power plants - 14.1%, nuclear power plants - 5.6%, solid waste - 3.5%. In some cities of the planet, such as New York, Los Angeles, Tokyo, the degree of urban air pollution from transport reaches 90%.
Samiy high level of air pollution in Ukraine was registered in the cities of Donetsk, Mariupol, Dnepropetrovsk, Dneprodzerzhinsk, Zaporozhye, Krivoy Rog, Kiev, Odessa, Severodonetsk, etc. These cities were among the 68 cities of the former USSR with the highest level of pollution.
Measures aimed at protecting atmospheric air include the introduction of technical solutions for the neutralization and capture of gaseous pollutants, the development and approval of pollution standards, maximum permissible emissions for all enterprises, the creation of modern devices for continuous monitoring and accounting of emissions.
The problems of surface water protection in Russia are still relevant, despite the fact that up to 60% of drinking water in the country is obtained from surface water sources. In a number of regions, up to 50 - 80% of water samples do not meet the regulatory requirements for sanitary and chemical indicators.
In the three-member system of surface water protection (hygienic standards, indicators and limits for the discharge of pollution into water bodies and control of discharges), the fundamental role belongs to the quality standards of water bodies - the MPC values, which have a statutory state status and are designed to prevent water pollution. In accordance with the Federal Law "On Sanitary and Epidemiological Well-being of the Population" dated March 30, 1999, No. 52-FZ, hygienic standards are directly related to the protection of surface waters used as sources of drinking water supply or for recreational water use by the population. Treatment facilities of waterworks have limited efficiency in relation to chemical contamination, and therefore the quality of drinking water in terms of chemical composition depends entirely on the levels of contamination of the source water of water sources.
Human consumption of water is hundreds of times higher than the consumption of all other types of natural resources. The growth in consumption is causing the depletion of fresh water supplies. And although water covers over 70% of the Earth's surface and belongs to renewable resources, it is becoming an increasingly scarce natural product.
Water resources are water (surface and underground) that a person uses in everyday life, in industry, in agriculture.
To assess water resources, a water cadastre has been created - a collection of information about the water resources of Russia. It summarizes the materials of hydrological observations and research.
The cadastre also indicates the distribution of waters on the territory of our country, and the seasonal distribution of high-water rivers.
For each inhabitant of the Russian Plain there is 8500 m 3 of water per year, and for one inhabitant of Siberia - 100,000 m 3 per year, i.e. 12 times more. In the southern (agricultural) regions of Russia there is a shortage of water, because most of the water is used for irrigation. In the Urals, the water problem is very acute, because the rivers of the Urals are shallow (these are the upper reaches of the rivers), and the water requirements for cities and numerous enterprises are very high.
At present, a tense situation has developed with the provision of the population of Russia with good-quality drinking water. The main criterion for the quality of drinking water is its impact on human health. The harmlessness of water is ensured by the absence of toxic and harmful impurities in it. One of the reasons for the unsatisfactory quality of drinking water is massive pollution of surface water bodies. Every day, tons of industrial waste, waste water from fields and from domestic and storm sewers of cities and small settlements are poured there. Recent studies have shown that every fourth sample of water from reservoirs does not meet hygienic standards in terms of sanitary and chemical characteristics and every third - in terms of microbiological indicators. The water of most surface water sources in Russia is characterized by moderate and high levels of pollution. For many years, organic compounds, suspended solids, oil products, phenols, heavy metals, etc. have been the priority pollutants. the fact that at present the concentrations of priority hazardous chemicals are already approaching the maximum permissible, and in some cases even exceed them. In this situation, the possibility of obtaining high-quality drinking water is sharply complicated, since the existing water treatment facilities practically do not provide a barrier function in relation to man-made chemicals. They enter the drinking water in transit. Today, almost all surface water sources in terms of pollution level are close to 3 quality class, and according to the international classification - to 4-5, while the composition of treatment facilities and water purification technology remain unchanged. The traditional technology for the preparation of drinking water (coagulation, settling, filtering, disinfection), which is used at waterworks with river water intakes, is designed to bring natural water up to drinking water requirements in accordance with the current GOST, only under the condition of an overall low water pollution and, above all, toxic elements. In the process of technological preparation of drinking water from surface water bodies with the use of various reagents, chemical compounds can be formed, which are often more toxic than primary pollutants. The use of modern methods of water analysis made it possible to detect more than 700 organic compounds in drinking water. The widespread use of chlorine at treatment plants in the technology of drinking water preparation leads to the formation of very dangerous organochlorine compounds that have carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. In certain periods of the year, concentrations of, for example, chloroform in tap water are 3-5 times higher than the maximum level. The same can be said about aluminum, a substance that has a neurogenic effect on the body. In the course of water treatment with aluminum compounds, the content of this metal in drinking water, especially during floods and water bodies, can increase by 2 or more times. The next important problem of high-quality water supply is the almost universal deterioration of the sanitary-technical condition of distribution water supply networks, which is the reason for secondary pollution of drinking water in them. The above picture of the state of water supply and the quality of drinking water indicates that each of us is exposed to danger every day from ordinary tap water. This fact does not raise doubts about the need for additional purification, which would correspond not only to GOST, but also to the requirements of each cell of our body.
One of the most effective directions of organizational measures for the protection of water resources is the organization of water protection zones and the dilution of wastewater.
Organization of water protection zones. In the Russian Federation, most of the water supply sources are surface (rivers, lakes, reservoirs). To maintain these sources in a state that meets environmental requirements, excludes pollution, contamination and depletion of surface waters and preserves the habitat of animals and plants, water protection zones are organized. They are territories adjacent to the water area of rivers, reservoirs and other surface water bodies; they establish a special regime for the use and protection of natural resources, as well as for the implementation of other activities. Within these zones, coastal protective zones are established, where it is not allowed to plow the land, cut wood, place farms, etc.
Water-protective forest plantations around natural and artificial reservoirs and watercourses are of great importance in the protection of surface waters from contamination and pollution. They are designed to protect them from the destructive effects of winds and water entering them from the catchment area, as well as to reduce water losses for evaporation. Forest plantations improve the water regime of reservoirs, the sanitary and hygienic conditions of the coast and its landscape and decorative design, the quality of water in reservoirs, reduce their siltation, and reduce the loss of land due to coastal processing by waves (abrasion).
In addition to water protection zones, in order to ensure water protection, zones and districts of sanitary protection can also be established. They are established in order to protect water bodies used for drinking and domestic water supply, as well as containing natural medicinal resources.
It is almost impossible to ensure the cleanliness of surface water bodies and watercourses without appropriate groundwater protection, which consists in preventing the depletion of groundwater reserves and protecting them from pollution.
In order to combat the depletion of fresh groundwater reserves, which are a strategic reserve for drinking water supply for future generations, the following measures are envisaged:
1) rational placement of water intakes by area;
2) regulation of groundwater abstraction regime;
3) clarification of the value of operational reserves (to prevent their depletion);
4) for self-flowing artesian wells, the establishment of a crane operating mode.
Sometimes, to prevent the depletion of underground waters, artificial replenishment is used by transferring part of the surface runoff to the underground one.
The fight against groundwater pollution includes preventive and special measures. Preventive measures are essential because they are the lowest cost. Special measures are aimed primarily at isolating pollution sources from the rest of the aquifer (impervious walls, curtains), intercepting contaminated groundwater by means of drainage or pumping them out of special wells.
The most important preventive measure to prevent contamination of groundwater in the areas of water intakes is the device around them sanitary protection zones... Sanitary Protection Zones (SPZ) consist of three zones. The first belt includes an area at a distance of 30-50 m directly from the place of water intake (well). This is a strict regime zone, it is forbidden to the presence of unauthorized persons and to carry out work not related to the operation of the water intake. The second belt of the WSP serves to protect the aquifer from bacterial pollution, and the third - from chemical pollution. It is prohibited to place any objects that can cause this or that pollution, for example, livestock complexes. Logging, use of pesticides, etc. is not allowed.
According to it, it is forbidden to discharge into water bodies waste water, which:
They can be eliminated by organizing low-waste industries, rational technology, maximum use in recycling and re-supply systems after appropriate cleaning and disinfection in industry, urban economy and for irrigation in agriculture;
It is prohibited to discharge wastewater within the boundaries of sanitary protection zones of sources of drinking and domestic water supply, fish protection zones, fishery protected areas and in some other cases.
Wastewater can be discharged into water bodies, provided that the hygienic requirements for the water of the water body are met, depending on the type of water use.
When discharging wastewater into water bodies, the water quality standards of the water body in the settlement section located below the wastewater outlet must comply with sanitary requirements depending on the type of water use.
Water quality standards for water bodies include:
General requirements for the composition and properties of water in water bodies, depending on the type of water use;
The list of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of standardized substances in water of water bodies for various types of water use.
In the design section, the water must meet the regulatory requirements. The maximum permissible concentration - MPC is used as a standard. All hazardous substances for which MPCs have been determined are subdivided according to limiting hazard indicators (LPV), which is understood as the greatest negative impact of these substances. The belonging of substances to the same LPV presupposes the summation of the effect of these substances on a water body.
For water bodies of drinking and cultural and household water use, three types of LPV are used: sanitary-toxicological, general sanitary and organoleptic. For fishery reservoirs: sanitary and toxicological, general sanitary, organoleptic, toxicological and fishery.
Substances, the concentration of which changes in the water of a water body only by dilution, are called conservative; substances, the concentration of which changes both under the influence of dilution and as a result of the course of various chemical, physicochemical and biological processes, are non-conservative.
The main mechanism for reducing the concentration of pollutants when discharging wastewater into water bodies is dilution.
Dilution of waste water Is the process of reducing the concentration of pollutants in water bodies, caused by the mixing of wastewater with the aqueous medium into which they are released.
The intensity of the dilution process is quantitatively characterized dilution ration, which is equal to the ratio of the sum of waste water flow rates q st, m 3 / s and the surrounding water environment Q, m 3 / with waste water consumption:
or the ratio of excess concentrations of pollutants at the point of release to similar concentrations in the considered section of the watercourse (total dilution at the site):
where From st WITH f - concentration of pollutants in water bodies before wastewater discharge, g / m 3; WITH- concentration of wastewater pollutants in the considered section of the watercourse after wastewater discharge, g / m 3.
The wastewater dilution process takes place in two stages: initial and main dilution. The total dilution ratio is presented as a product:
n= n n n 0, (4)
where n n - the ratio of the initial dilution, n 0 - the multiplicity of the main dilution.
The propagation of impurities occurs in the direction of the dominant currents, and in the same direction the dilution ratio tends to increase. So, in the initial section (at the point of release) the dilution ratio n n = 1 ( Q= 0 or WITH= WITH st), and then as the liquid flow rate increases, the impurity concentration decreases, and the dilution ratio increases. In the limit when all possible water flows for a given water body are involved in the mixing process, complete mixing occurs. Under conditions of complete mixing, the concentration of pollutants tends to the background, i.e. WITH→WITH f.
The section of a reservoir or watercourse from the place of wastewater discharge to the section where they will be completely mixed is conventionally divided into three zones (Fig. 13):
1st zone - initial dilution. Here, the dilution process takes place due to the entrainment of the reservoir liquid by the turbulent flow of a stream of waste water flowing out of the outlet devices. At the end of the first zone, the difference between the velocities of the jet stream and the environment becomes insignificant.
2nd zone - main dilution. The degree of dilution in this zone is determined by the intensity of the turbulent mixing.
3rd zone - there is practically no dilution of waste water in this zone. The decrease in the concentration of pollutants occurs mainly due to the processes of self-purification of water.
Rice. 13. Scheme of the distribution of wastewater in the reservoir
Processes that change the nature of substances entering water bodies are called self-purification processes. The combination of dilution and self-cleaning make up the detoxifying ability of a water body.
Dilution of wastewater in watercourses is determined by the complex influence of the following three processes:
Wastewater distribution in the initial section of the watercourse, which depends on the design of the outlet structure;
Initial dilution of wastewater by turbulent jets;
The main dilution of wastewater, determined by the hydrodynamic processes of reservoirs and watercourses.
All factors and conditions that characterize the dilution process can be divided into two groups:
1st group- design and technological features of wastewater discharge (design of the outlet structure; number, shape and size of outlets; flow rate and rate of wastewater discharged; technology and sanitary indicators of wastewater (physical properties, concentration of pollutants, etc.);
2nd group- hydrometeorological features of water bodies and watercourses (the nature of the movement of water masses; the reasons causing these movements (runoff, wind, temperature, density, etc.; morphological characteristics of the channel of a watercourse or bed of a reservoir; degree of flow of a water body; composition and properties of the aquatic environment).
For example, from the factors of the first group, it was found that dilution proceeds more intensively with scattering outlets. From the physical properties of waste water, the initial density and temperature have the greatest effect on dilution, and not their absolute values, but the difference between the parameters of the waste water and the surrounding water environment.
Of the factors of the second group, secondary currents are of significant importance, which take place, for example, at a bend in the channel, when the flows move not only in the main direction, but also in the opposite direction.
The required degree of wastewater treatment NS,%, can be calculated by the formula:
where From st- concentration of pollutants in waste water, g / m 3; From st.dk... - permissible concentration of a substance in wastewater, g / m 3.
The required degree of wastewater treatment indicates how many percent it is necessary to reduce the concentration of pollution in the wastewater treatment process to ensure the water quality standards in the wastewater receiver.
