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Psychology- the science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all the variety of forms.

General psychology- a fundamental discipline that studies the general laws of cognitive processes and states and the general mental properties of an individual.

The path of development of psychological science was more difficult than the development of other sciences, such as physics or chemistry. It is not difficult to understand the reasons for this difference. After all, as is well known, objects of physics, chemistry, and other natural sciences are somehow visible, tangible, material. Psychology, on the other hand, deals with a substance that, although it constantly reveals itself, nevertheless appears as a special reality of the highest level and differs from material reality in its invisibility, intangibility, and insubstantiality.

It is this difference, giving rise to difficulties in fixing psychological phenomena, and hampered from the very beginning the development of psychological knowledge, its transformation into an independent science, since its object itself for a long time seemed elusive, mysterious.

The history of psychological knowledge has more than 2000 years, during which it developed mainly within the framework of philosophy and natural science.

The beginning of the transformation of psychology into an independent science is associated with the name of the German scientist Christian Wolf(1679-1754), who published Rational Psychology (1732), and Experimental Psychology (1734), in which he used the term psychology.

However, only from the beginning of the XX century. psychology finally emerged as an independent science. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. the importance of psychology has significantly increased in connection with its increasing involvement in various types of practical activity. Such branches of her as pedagogical, legal, military, managerial, sports psychology, etc. have arisen. At the same time, the originality of the object of psychological science has generated in its composition a large number of scientific schools and theories that complement each other and often contradict each other.

The meaning of the word "psychology" itself becomes clear if we consider that it consists of two Greek terms: « psyche» - the soul, derived from the name of the Greek goddess Psyche, and « logos» - word, concept, teaching, science.

Since its inception, psychology began to stand out among other sciences, since it was the only one among them that was named after the goddess.

Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology. According to one myth, the god of love Eros fell in love with a simple peasant woman Psyche... distinguished, however, by divine beauty. But the mother of Eros, the goddess Aphrodite, was very unhappy that her son was. celestial, he wanted to join his fate with a mere mortal. Aphrodite began to make efforts to separate the lovers. She made Psyche go through many trials. But the desire of Psyche to unite her fate with Eros turned out to be so great that it made a strong impression on the gods of Olympus and they decided to help Psyche overcome all the trials that fell to her lot and fulfill her requirements of Aphrodite. Meanwhile, Eros managed to convince the supreme God - Zeus, to turn Psyche into a goddess, to make her as immortal as the gods. So the lovers manage to unite forever.

In fact, it is this deep thought about the integrity of the universe, which includes two main principles - material and spiritual. contained in the ancient myth, became the basis for the concepts of modern materialistic philosophy and psychology about the essence of the human psyche, as such a property of highly organized matter, which embodies the highest stage of the universal evolution of nature.

It is this idea that is expressed in the most common definition of psychological science today:

Psychology is a science, the object of which is the laws of the psyche as a special, highest form of human and animal life.

The very same psyche today it is understood not as something mysterious and inexplicable, but as the highest form of interconnection of living beings with the objective world, which emerged as a result of a long process of self-organization of nature, expressed in their ability to realize their motives based on information about this world.

At the level of a person, which expresses the highest stage of the process of organization, the ordering of being, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that the biological nature of a person is transformed by socio-cultural factors, due to which an extensive internal plan of life appears - consciousness, and a person becomes a person.

However, even today it should be borne in mind that for many centuries the psyche was designated by the term "soul", which was presented as an ethereal entity, the history and fate of which, according to various religious beliefs that have survived to this day, depends not so much on processes of self-organization of natural life, not so much from a living body, how much from extraterrestrial, supernatural principles, from otherworldly forces inaccessible to our understanding. It is this idea of ​​the essence of the mental that lies at the basis of all modern world religions, including Christianity, and is also supported by some areas of philosophy and modern psychological science.

However, from the point of view of other psychological teachings, the psyche is the highest product of the processes of self-organization of nature and acts as an intermediary between the subjective, human and objective, external world, providing a powerful rise in the effectiveness of human activity in transforming the surrounding natural and social environment.

But one way or another, the basis of modern psychology is historically formed ideas about the correspondence of the mental and material worlds, the coexistence of internal and external, mental and physical, subjective and objective being.

Of course, before arriving at such an idea of ​​the essence of the psychic, knowledge about it had to go through a long path of development, which includes a number of stages. Acquaintance with the content of these stages helps to understand psychic reality deeper and, on this basis, make a conscious choice between the various ss interpretations that exist today.

The process of developing psychological knowledge was long and difficult. These difficulties were not accidental. They are associated with the specifics of the mental, which gave rise in the past and gives rise today to many problems in the development of psychological science, in particular, explains the preservation up to the present time. polytheoretical this area of ​​knowledge.

Difficulties in the development of psychology are associated with the following features of the mental sphere:

Special location, localization object of psychological science. The physical media of this object is located not outside, but within us. Moreover, the physical carriers of mental functions are "hidden" inside us especially reliably: in the skull, in other most durable bone structures of our skeleton.

This especially reliable protection, created by nature to protect the psyche. at the same time, it significantly complicates the study of the secrets of this sphere.

The specificity of the mental world also lies in the fact that, being closely connected with the material, physical world, with a single process of self-organization for the entire universe, at the same time it is opposite to it in a number of its properties. As already noted, the psyche is distinguished by such properties as disembodiment, immateriality, invisibility. Of course, mental properties sometimes come out, they are manifested in words, gestures and actions of people and thus partially materialize.

However, between these visible, material manifestations and the mental phenomena themselves, there is always a distance, sometimes of an enormous size. It is not for nothing that some experts on the human psyche argue that the language was given to us in order to hide our thoughts.

From the indicated features of the mental sphere, another one follows, which researchers constantly encountered - impossibility of accurate fixation, physical or chemical registration of mental processes occurring in the nervous system, especially in the brain, the impossibility of objectively determining the thoughts and feelings that arise within us. That is why the repeated attempts to create a so-called "lie detector" or chronograph have turned out to be unsuccessful, since they were invariably discovered. that in the process of their experimental use, these devices record only physiological processes (changes in pulse, body temperature, pressure, etc.), with which mental phenomena are associated, but not these mental phenomena themselves.

And finally, another difficulty in cognizing psychic reality arises in connection with the impossibility of using the entire complex of our cognitive abilities to study it, since mental phenomena can neither be seen, nor smell, nor touch: they can be perceived only indirectly, speculatively, with the help of our ability for abstract thinking, since only this unique ability of ours makes it possible see the invisible.

All these features of psychic reality made the task of its study particularly difficult and led to the fact that the path of development of psychology turned out to be very long and contradictory. This path included a number of stages, each of which generated its own special form of psychological knowledge.

The study of the history of psychology, of course, cannot be reduced to a simple enumeration of certain psychological problems, ideas and perceptions proper. In order to understand them. it is necessary to understand their internal connection, the common logic of the formation of psychology as a science.

It is especially important to understand that psychology as a doctrine of the human soul is always conditioned by anthropology, the doctrine of man in his entirety. Research, hypotheses, conclusions of psychology, no matter how abstract and private they may seem, imply a certain understanding essence of man, are guided by this or that image.

In turn, doctrine of man fits into general picture of the world, formed on the basis of the synthesis of knowledge, ideological attitudes of a particular historical era. Therefore, the history of the formation and development of psychological knowledge is, albeit a complex, contradictory, but quite logical process associated with a change in the understanding of the essence of a person and the formation on this basis of new explanations of his psyche.

In this process, three main historical stages are usually distinguished, which correspond to three forms of psychological knowledge:

• , or everyday, psychology;

The structure of psychological science

The historical process of development of each science is associated with its increasingly significant differentiation, which is based on the process of expanding the object of this science. As a result, modern sciences, especially fundamental ones, including psychology. represent a complex diversified system. As the structure of science becomes more complex, it becomes necessary to classify its constituent branch sciences. The classification of branch sciences is understood as their systematic division, the ordering of scientific knowledge by decomposing one or another science as a generic concept into its constituent generic concepts.

Psychology at the current level of development is a very ramified system of scientific disciplines.

They develop general problems and study the general laws of the psyche that are manifested in people, regardless of what kind of activity they are engaged in. Due to the universality of knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology, they are united by the term "General psychology".

Studies such mental processes as sensations, perceptions, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. V personality psychology the psychic structure of the personality and the psychic properties of the personality, which determine the deeds and actions of a person, are studied.

In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines, associated with various areas of human life and activity.

Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of activity, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, trade psychology and the psychology of scientific creativity, sports psychology, etc.

social Psychology.

The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely related to both general psychology and special branches of psychology.

genetic, differential and developmental psychology.

For a mentally competent organization of upbringing, it is necessary to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as a family, student and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of social psychology.

Psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in human behavior and psyche and is extremely necessary for pedagogical work with children who are lagging behind in mental development, or pedagogically neglected children.

Combines all information related to education and upbringing. The subject of educational psychology is the psychological laws of education and upbringing of a person. Sections of educational psychology are: the psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods. Formation of mental actions); psychology of upbringing (psychological foundations of upbringing, psychological foundations of corrective labor pedagogy); psychology of teaching and educational work with difficult children: the psychology of the teacher).

Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, as a result of which there is a docking of psychology with other sciences, such as, for example, through educational psychology with pedagogy.

Psychological Science Subject

The very name of psychology means that psychology is the science of the soul. The study, explanation of the soul was the first stage in its formation. So, for the first time, psychology was defined as the science of the soul. But it turned out to be quite difficult to investigate the soul using scientific methods. In the course of historical development, focusing on natural scientific research methods and the general scientific ideal of objectivity, psychologists abandoned the concept of the soul and began to develop programs for building psychology as a single scientific discipline based on a materialistic worldview. On this path, psychology has made significant progress in the study of the phenomena of the human psyche: the main components of the psyche were identified, the patterns of formation of sensation and perception were studied, the types of memory, types and features of thinking were identified, psychological problems of specific types of human activity, etc.

However, as many psychologists state, the path of abandoning the concept of the soul and replacing it with the concept of the psyche ultimately turned out to be a dead end for psychology.

Throughout the XX century. both Western and Soviet psychology proceeded from the world of existence, and spiritual life was viewed as a product of “specially organized matter” - the brain and social interactions. The result of such a half-march was, as noted by B.S. Brother, not only a dead, soulless, soul-giving person as an object of research, but also a dead, soulless psychology.

No matter how psychology claims to be scientific objectivity, nevertheless, at the heart of any significant psychological concept of the 20th century, be it behaviorism or Marxist psychology, psychoanalysis or humanistic psychology, the initial image is the image of a person deprived of an immortal soul, subject to instincts, wandering in search of pleasure , pleasures, activities, self-realization, self-aggrandizement, etc.

In the course of attempts to build psychology as an independent scientific discipline on the basis of a materialistic worldview, loss of unity psychological science itself. Psychology in the XX century. is a conglomeration of facts, schools, directions and research, most often almost unrelated to each other. At one time, hopes were pinned on general psychology, called upon to play a leading role in relation to specific psychological research, but these hopes were not justified.

Currently, within the framework of psychological science, there are general psychological theories, guided by different scientific ideals, and psychological practice, based on certain psychological theories or on a number of them and developing special psychotechnics for influencing consciousness and controlling it.

The presence of disparate psychological theories has led to the problem of the subject of psychology. For the behaviorist, the subject of study is behavior, for the supporter of the theory of activity - mentally controlled activity, for the Christian psychologist - living knowledge about the genesis of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them, for the psychoanalyst - the unconscious, etc.

The question naturally arises: is it possible to speak of psychology as a unified science with a common subject of research, or should we recognize the presence of many psychologies?

Some scientists believe that psychology is a single science, which, like any other science, has its own special subject. Psychology as a science deals with the study of the factors of mental life, as well as the disclosure of the laws that govern mental phenomena. And no matter how difficult paths psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, mastering its subject, no matter how the knowledge about it changes and is enriched, no matter what terms it denotes, it is possible to distinguish features that characterize the actual subject of psychology, which distinguishes it from other sciences ...

Psychology is a science that studies the facts, laws and mechanisms of the psyche.

Other scientists are inclined to think that psychology is science and practice in unity, and science and practice in psychology are understood in different ways. But this means that there are many psychologies: no less than real experiments in the construction of psychological science-practice.

The restoration of a single subject of psychology and the synthesis of psychological knowledge is possible only by returning psychology to recognition of reality and the dominant role of the soul. And although the soul will remain mainly outside the framework of psychological research, its postulation, its reverent recognition, the constant need to correlate with the fact itself and the goals of its existence will inevitably change, transform the forms and essence of psychological research.

Many open-minded psychologists, both in the West and in Russia, have recognized the deep chasm that separates modern scientific psychology from the great religious systems. The wealth of deep knowledge about the human soul and consciousness accumulated in these systems over the centuries and even over millennia has not received adequate recognition and have not been studied until recently.

In recent years, there has been a convergence of the spiritual-experienced and scientific-theoretical methods of knowing the world.

The desire to go beyond the understanding of psychology as a science of the psyche, a property of the brain, is increasingly traced. Many modern psychologists consider human psychology as a psychological anthropology and speak of spirituality as the deepest essence of man. The concepts of soul and spirituality from the standpoint of today are no longer interpreted as purely figurative expressions. Spirituality includes the meaning of life, conscience, higher moral values ​​and feelings, higher interests, ideas, beliefs. And although spirituality has no direct physical correlates, except for energy, psychologists believe that spirituality can be studied within the framework of psychology.

By the end of the XX century. the need to build a unified picture of the world is realized, in which both the results of scientific knowledge of nature and man and the fruits of a thousand-year spiritual experience would be synthesized. Physicists are the leader in this process, as has always been in the history of scientific knowledge. Following physics, scientific psychology also began to realize the need to restructure the world outlook and reach a multidimensional understanding of man.

Taking into account all of the above, psychologists come to an understanding of psychology as a science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all the variety of forms.

The structure of psychology as a science

Psychology at the modern level of development is a very ramified system of scientific disciplines, subdivided into fundamental and applied.

Fundamental branches of psychology develop general problems and study the general laws of the psyche that are manifested in people, regardless of what activity they are engaged in. Due to the universality of knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology, they are united by the term "General psychology".

General psychology examines the individual, highlighting mental cognitive processes and personality in him. Psychology of cognitive processes studies such mental processes as sensation, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. V personality psychology investigates the mental structure of the personality and the mental properties of the personality that determine the deeds and actions of a person.

In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines at different stages of formation, associated with various areas of human life and activity.

Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific activities, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, psychology of trade, psychology of scientific creativity, psychology of sports, etc.

The psychological aspects of development are studied by developmental psychology and the psychology of abnormal development.

The psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society are investigated social Psychology.

The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely related to both general psychology and special branches of psychology.

The scientific basis for understanding the laws of mental development of a child are genetic, differential and age-related psychology. Genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior of a child. Differential psychology identifies individual differences between people and explains the process of their formation. In developmental psychology, the stages of the individual's mental development are studied.

For a mentally competent organization of upbringing, you need to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as a family, student and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of the social psyche.

The psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in the behavior and psyche of a person and is extremely necessary in pedagogical work with children who are lagging behind in mental development.

Educational psychology brings together all information related to education and upbringing. The subject of educational psychology is the psychological laws of education and upbringing of a person. The sections of educational psychology are:

• psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods, the formation of mental actions);
• psychology of upbringing (psychological foundations of upbringing, psychological foundations of corrective labor pedagogy);
• psychology of teaching and educational work with difficult children;
• psychology of the teacher.

Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, as a result of which psychology is docked with other sciences, for example, through educational psychology with pedagogy.

Dictionary

Transpersonal Psychology- a direction in psychology of the XX century, founded by the American psychologist S. Grof and considering a person as a cosmic and spiritual being, inextricably linked with all of humanity and the Universe, and his consciousness as a part of the world information network.

Soviet psychology- a period in the development of Russian psychology, when Marxist-Leninist philosophy served as the ideological basis of psychological research.

Spiritually oriented psychology- a trend in modern domestic psychology, based on traditional spiritual values ​​and recognizing the reality of spiritual being.

Psychology Is a science that studies the psyche in its development and manifestation in various activities.

• qualitative study of mental phenomena;
• analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena;
• study of the physiological mechanisms of the psyche;
• assistance in the systematic introduction of psychological knowledge into the practice of life and work of people.

Subject and object of psychology

The subject and object of psychology are defined as follows.

Psychology subject- this is psyche as the highest form of interconnection of living beings with the objective world, expressed in their ability to realize their motives and act on the basis of information about it.

At the human level, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that its biological nature is transformed by sociocultural factors. From the point of view of modern science, the psyche is a kind of mediator between the subjective and the objective, it realizes the historically formed ideas about the coexistence of the external and internal, physical and mental.

Psychology object- this is laws of the psyche as a special form of human life and animal behavior. This form of life, due to its versatility, can be studied in a wide variety of aspects, which are studied by various branches of psychological science.

They have as their object:

• norms and pathology in the human psyche;
• types of specific activities, the development of the psyche of humans and animals;
• man's attitude to nature and society, etc.

The scale of the subject of psychology and the possibility of distinguishing various objects of research in its composition has led to the fact that at present, within the framework of psychological science, general psychological theories... guided by different scientific ideals, and psychological practice, which develops special psychotechnics for influencing consciousness and controlling it.

The presence of disparate psychological theories also gives rise to the problem of differences between the subject and the object of psychology... For the behaviorist, the object of study is behavior, for the Christian psychologist - a living knowledge of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them. for the psychoanalyst, the unconscious, etc.

The question naturally arises: is it possible to speak of psychology as a single science having a common subject and object of study, or should we recognize the presence of a plurality of psychology?

Today psychologists believe that psychological science is a unified science, which, like any other, has its own special subject and object. Psychology as a science deals with the study of the facts of mental life, as well as the disclosure of the laws that govern mental phenomena. And no matter how difficult paths psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, changing its object of research and thereby penetrating deeper into its large-scale subject, no matter how the knowledge about it changes and enriches, no matter what terms they are designated, the main blocks of concepts can be identified , which characterize the actual object of psychology, which distinguishes it from other sciences.

The most important result of the development of any science is the creation of its own categorical apparatus. This set of concepts constitutes, as it were, the skeleton, the skeleton of any branch of scientific knowledge. Categories are forms of thinking, basic, generic, initial concepts; these are key moments, nodes, steps in the process of cognition of a particular sphere of reality.

Each science has its own complex, a set of categories, and psychological science has its own categorical apparatus. It includes the following four blocks of basic concepts:

• mental processes- this concept means that modern psychology considers mental phenomena not as something initially given in a finished form, but as something forming, developing, as a dynamic process that generates certain results in the form of images, feelings, thoughts, etc .;
• - cheerfulness or depression, efficiency or fatigue, calmness or irritability, etc.;
• mental properties of personality- its general focus on certain goals in life, temperament, character, abilities. inherent in a person over a long period of his life, for example, hard work, sociability, etc.;
• mental neoplasms- knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during life, which are the result of the individual's activity.

Of course, these mental phenomena do not exist separately, not in isolation. They are closely interconnected and influence each other. So, for example, the state of cheerfulness sharpens the process of attention, and the state of depression leads to a deterioration in the process of perception.

A brief historical sketch of the development of psychology

Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental makeup of people. In the philosophical teachings of antiquity, some psychological aspects were already touched upon, of which they were solved either in terms of idealism or in terms of plan. So, the materialistic philosophers of antiquity, Democrat, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation formed from globular, small and most mobile atoms.

Plato

The founder of idealism was (a large slave owner). He divided all people according to their advantageous qualities — intelligence(in the head) courage(in the chest) lust(in the abdominal cavity). All governing bodies - have the intelligence of war - courage, slaves - lust. Plato is the founder of not only idealism, but also dualism. But the idealist philosopher Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from the body. The soul, before entering the human body, exists separately in the upper world, where it cognizes ideas - eternal and unchanging essences. Once in the body, the soul begins to remember what it saw before birth. Plato's idealistic theory, which interprets the body and psyche as two independent and antagonistic principles, laid the foundation for all subsequent idealistic theories.

Aristotle

He was the successor of Plato's work. He not only overcame dualism (a direction that recognizes two independent principles at the basis of the world - matter and spirit), but also is the ancestor of materialism(the direction affirming the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness, the materiality of the world, the independence of its existence from the consciousness of people and its cognizability). Aristotle tried to put psychology on the basis of medicine. But Aristotle could not fully explain human behavior only through medicine. The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise On the Soul singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of ​​the indivisibility of the soul and the living body.

The works of Aristotle, Plato and other philosophers formed the basis for the works of philosophers of the Middle Ages in the 17th century. - this is the starting point from the materialism of philosophy.

History of psychology as experimental science starts in 1879 in the world's first experimental psychological laboratory, founded by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Soon, in 1885, V.M.Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

A well-known psychologist of the late XIX - early XX centuries. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say about psychology very briefly and accurately - psychology has a huge background and a very short history. History means that period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, a rapprochement with the natural sciences and the organization of their own experimental method. This happened in the last quarter of the 19th century, but the origins of psychology are lost in the mists of time.

Rene de Carte is a biologist, physician, philosopher. He opened the coordinate system, put forward the idea of ​​reflex, the idea of ​​reflexive behavior. But he could not fully explain the behavior of the organism and therefore remained on the position of dualism. It was very difficult to separate the inner world of a person from his internal organs. The prerequisites for idealism were created.

There was another approach to understanding the psyche in the history of psychology, developed by Russian psychologists in line with the philosophy of dialectical materialism in the Soviet historical period. The essence of this understanding of the psyche can be seen in four words, the formal authorship of which belongs to V.I.Lenin (1870-1924). The psyche is a subjective image of the objective world.

General understanding of the subject of psychology

Each science has its own subject of research. Here is a brief description of the approaches associated with a fundamental change in the outlook on the subject of psychology.

Stages of development of psychology

Stage I- psychology as the science of the soul... This definition of psychology was given over two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in a person's life by the presence of a soul. This long stage, called pre-scientific in the literature, is determined from the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. until the beginning of the 18th century.

Stage II- psychology as science about... It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was considered to be a person's observation of himself and the description of facts. According to the new approach, a person always sees, hears, touches, feels, remembers something. It is these phenomena that psychology should study, since, unlike the soul, they can be experimentally investigated, measured, scientifically generalized, and causal relationships and relationships established in them.

Stage III- psychology as behavioral science... Behaviorism took shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in the USA. “Behavior” in English is “behavior”. The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely the behavior, actions, reactions of a person (the motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

At the same time, many “traditional” psychologists have expressed serious objections to some of the original components of the behaviorist approach. Behavior and psyche are, although connected, but by no means identical reality. So, when exposed to the same stimulus, it is possible that there is not one response, but a certain set of them, and, conversely, the same response is sometimes obtained in the presence of different stimuli. In psychology, it is recognized, for example, that a person often looks at one thing, but sees another, thinks about one thing, experiences another, says a third, does a fourth.

Stage IV- psychology as a science that studies objective laws, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

Psychology methods

To solve a complex of problems in science, there is a developed system of means, directions, ways, methods.

Method- this is the path of scientific knowledge. The way through which the subject of science is cognized.

Methodology- this is a variant, a particular implementation of the method in specific conditions: organizational, social, historical.

The set or system of methods and techniques of any science is not random, arbitrary. They take shape historically, change, develop, obeying certain laws, methodological rules.

Methodology Is not only a teaching about methods, the rules for their choice or use. It is a systematic description of the very philosophy, ideology, strategy and tactics of scientific research. The methodology specifies what exactly, how and why we study, how we interpret the results obtained, how we implement them in practice.

Subject, principles and tasks of psychology

Many years ago, in the forests of Aveyron, in the south of France, hunters found a boy, apparently fed by some animal and completely feral. Later, in the jungles of India, two girls were found, abducted, as it turned out, by a she-wolf and fed by her. Dozens of such tragic cases are known to science. What is the tragedy of these incidents, because the children found were alive and physically quite healthy? Ike these children, who spent their early childhood among animals, did not have a single human quality. Even physically, they resembled animals: they moved on all fours, ate like animals, tearing pieces of meat with their teeth and holding them with two front limbs, growling and biting everyone who came close to them. Their sense of smell and hearing were very developed, they caught the slightest changes in the forest environment. Making inarticulate sounds, they hurried to hide from people.

Scientists examined these children and tried to teach them human behavior, teach them to speak and understand human speech. But. as a rule, such attempts were unsuccessful: the time for the intensive formation of basic human qualities was already irretrievably lost. A human being is formed as a human only in human society... And many human qualities are formed only in early childhood.

According to his biological organization, man is the result of an evolutionary process. The anatomical and physiological structure of his body is in many respects similar to that of the higher primates. But man is qualitatively different from all living beings. His life activity, needs and ways of meeting these needs are different from the life activity of animals. socio-cultural conditioning.

Man is a social being.

The natural characteristics of a person have changed in the process of his socio-historical development. The human world is a field of socially developed meanings, meanings, symbols. He lives in the world of social culture, which forms his so-called second nature, defines his essence. All human activities from birth to the end of his life are governed by the established in a given society, social norms, customs and traditions. The individual formed in society becomes socialized person- a person who is included in the system of general social, cultural and historical achievements of mankind, his life activity is realized in certain social conditions. Each individual becomes a human being to the extent that he masters the common human culture. He perceives the whole world as the world of humanly significant objects, interacts with them on the basis of socially developed concepts. “Man is the measure of all things,” the ancient philosopher Prota Mountains deeply noted. A person correlates everything in the world with his inner spiritual world: he experiences emotional excitement when contemplating distant stars, admires the beauty of forests, mountains and seas, appreciates the harmony of colors, forms and sounds, the integrity of personal relationships and the sublime manifestations of the human spirit. Man actively interacts with the world - he seeks to cognize and purposefully transform reality.

The behavior of animals is predetermined by an innate, instinctive program of life. Human behavior is conditioned by his mental, socially formed world, in which strategic and tactical planning of his life is carried out, the joys and sorrows of his human life are experienced. A person is able to measure the present with the past and future, think about the meaning of life, reflect - reflect not only the world around him, but also himself.

A person is endowed with such a socially formed mental regulator as conscience - the ability to control his command with the help of general social measures, to evaluate his own I through the eyes of other people. The socialized individual is a social and spiritual being. The spirituality of a person is manifested in his ability to rise above everything base, primitive down to earth, to maintain an unchanging commitment to his human dignity and duty.

Man is a complex and multifaceted creature. It is studied by many sciences - biology, anthropology, history, cultural studies, sociology, etc. The study of the inner world of a person, the general laws of his interaction with the outside world is carried out by a special science - psychology.

The subject of psychology is a person as a subject of activity, the systemic qualities of his self-regulation; the laws of the formation and functioning of the human psyche: its ability to reflect the world, cognize it and regulate its interaction with it.

Psychology studies the emergence and development of the psyche; neurophysiological foundations of mental activity; human consciousness as the highest form of the psyche; patterns of transition of the external to the internal; conditionality of the functioning of the psyche by socio-historical factors; patterns of formation of mental images of the world and the embodiment of these images in external, practical human activity; the unity of biological and social factors in the mental self-regulation of a person; the structure of the psyche; reflective and regulatory essence of cognitive, volitional and emotional processes, individual psychological characteristics of a person; psychological characteristics of human behavior in a social environment; psychology of specific types of human activity; and etc.

Every educated person should master the basics of general psychological knowledge. Knowing yourself is no less important than knowing the various aspects of the surrounding reality. Psychological knowledge is necessary for a person to properly organize his relationships with other people, effectively organize his activities, self-analysis and personal self-improvement. It is no coincidence that the main commandment of ancient thinkers reads: "Man, know yourself."

The practical need for the application of psychological knowledge in various fields of human activity has caused intensive development along with general psychology and its applied branches: pedagogical, medical, legal, engineering, aviation, space, psychology of art, labor, military affairs, sports, management, marketing, etc. At the same time, the study of applied branches of psychology is possible only on the basis of general psychological knowledge.

Psychological knowledge is needed wherever there is a need for the scientific organization of labor and the effective use of the resources of the human psyche. Psychologists work fruitfully in schools and clinics, in production, in cosmonaut training centers and administrative structures, the law enforcement system and analytical centers for social development.

Psychology tasks

The main task of psychology is the cognition of the psychic through the disclosure of those object connections from which psychic phenomena first arose and began to be defined as objective facts. Therefore, psychological cognition is understood today as mediated cognition of the psychic through the disclosure of its essential connections with the surrounding world.

With this understanding of the essence of the psychic, it becomes obvious that of all the sciences about man, the most practical is psychology... After studying it. you can find a lot in the world around you and in yourself and in other people.

The growing interest in the inner spiritual world of people is also associated with the fact that the modern era is increasingly revealing as lead the trend towards the integration of all aspects of the life of modern society: economic, political and spiritual. This integrative tendency, a line to strengthen the integrity of social development is also manifested in the fact that today the traditional, very narrow, technocratic understanding of the tasks of economic activity is being replaced by modernized concepts that bring to the fore in economic activity not technological tasks, but humanitarian and psychological problems.

Workers employed in modern production are increasingly aware of their activities not only as the use of high technologies, but also as an area in which participation requires from workers employed in it. managing oneself, other people, their communities.

This attitude has now become an elementary truth for specialists, entrepreneurs, managers of developed countries, both in the West and in the East.

The head of one of the largest American automobile companies, Li Ya Kokka, believes that “all business operations can ultimately be summarized in three words: people, product, profit. People come first. "

Akio Morita- the head of a famous Japanese electrical engineering company - claims that "Only people can make an enterprise successful".

Thus, in order to be successful, a modern worker, businessman, manager, any specialist must provide a solution with his / her activities. two-pronged tasks:

• achieving an economic result;
• impact on people creating this result.

Therefore, in modern conditions for a domestic entrepreneur, manager, highly qualified specialist of any profile, as well as for each person, the most urgent task is the psychological recovery of labor groups, production teams, and with them the whole society. A modern leader, a specialist, and any thinking person should know and take into account psychological factors activities of people and on this basis to ensure the growth of labor and social activity.

Our whole life is an endless series of events, situations, deeds, meetings, conversations, changes, victories and defeats, hopes and disappointments. In other words, a person's life is a constant interaction of his inner world with the surrounding reality. Every day we wake up, start our day, do different things, communicate with many people, go to work, develop a business or do something else. Human life in the modern world is life in the world of high technologies, an endless flow of information, rapid development and changes. And in order to meet all the requirements of the surrounding reality, a person must be developed, able to overcome difficulties and have an unbending inner core that will always support and help to stay strong. The modern world is ready to swallow a person in a matter of seconds, make him part of the gray mass, depersonalize, devastate and throw him to the sidelines. And if a person is not ready for this, then defeat is inevitable. But there is a way to emerge victorious in this fight.

One of the most important knowledge for a person in our time is knowledge in the field of psychology, and one of the most important skills is the ability to apply it in practice. To understand people, be able to find a common language with them and communicate, be able to instantly adjust to any situation, always help yourself and others, you need to understand psychology. So that the problems and stress, which today press with great force on a person, do not break you or your loved ones, and you or they can continue on their way, you need to understand the psychology of a person. To understand others at a deep level, to be able to raise oneself, raise one's children, influence others, one needs to know the nuances of human psychology. To achieve success, achieve new results, conquer new heights, live in prosperity, harmony and well-being, you need to have important knowledge - knowledge of human psychology.

Considering the importance of psychological knowledge, as well as the reasons that motivate people to grow and develop, their desire to become better and improve their lives, we have created this course called "Human Psychology". In the lessons of this course, we explore in detail very important things: we reveal the main and key problems of human psychology, the stages and patterns of its development and, the formation of the features of its behavior and communication with people. This course provides an opportunity to answer questions about how to understand human psychology, how to influence your own life, others and, most importantly, yourself. Studying psychology and applying the knowledge gained in life contributes to personal growth, improving personal life, establishing excellent relationships, achieving success in the professional field and other areas of activity. This course "Human Psychology" is an online training course consisting of lessons that contain interesting theoretical information about human psychology, provide examples (experiments, tests, experiments) and, most importantly, give a large number of practical advice that you can put into practice already on the first day of acquaintance with the training. At the end of the course, links to useful materials are provided: books (including audiobooks), videos, recordings of seminars, experiments and quotes about psychology.

Psychology(from the ancient Greek "knowledge of the soul") is a science that studies structures and processes inaccessible to external observation (which is sometimes called "soul") in order to explain human behavior, as well as the behavior of individuals, groups and collectives.

It is a complex, but important and interesting discipline to study. As it has probably already become clear, human psychology is a very fascinating area of ​​scientific knowledge and covers many sections, which you, if you wish, can get acquainted with on your own. You can even say that it is from this moment that your self-development will begin, because you will independently make a decision about what specifically you would like to study and begin to master new knowledge. Human psychology, in itself, has many properties, one of which is the fear of everything new and incomprehensible. For many people, this is an obstacle to self-development and the achievement of the desired results. We recommend that you set aside any fears and doubts, and start studying the materials of our site and this course. After a while, you will be proud of yourself, thanks to new skills and results achieved.

Psychology object is a person. From this we can conclude that any psychologist (or interested in psychology) is a researcher of himself, due to which a close relationship of the objective and the subjective arises in psychological theories.

Psychology subject in different historical epochs has always been understood in different ways and from the standpoint of different directions of psychological science:

• Soul. All researchers adhered to this position until the beginning of the 18th century.
• Phenomena of consciousness. Direction: English Empirical Association Psychology. Key representatives: David Gartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Ben, Herbert Spencer.
• Subject's immediate experience. Direction: structuralism. Key representatives: Wilhelm Wundt.
• Adaptability. Direction: functionalism. Key Representatives: William James.
• The origin of mental activities. Direction: psychophysiology. Main representatives: Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov.
• Behavior. Direction: behaviorism. Key spokespersons: John Watson.
• The unconscious. Direction: psychoanalysis. Main representatives: Sigmund Freud.
• Information processing processes and their results. Direction: Gestalt Psychology. Key representatives: Max Wertheimer.
• Personal experience of a person. Direction: humanistic psychology. Key representatives: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Victor Frankl, Rollo May.

The main sections of psychology:

• Acmeology
• Differential psychology
• Gender psychology
• Cognitive psychology
• Virtual psychology
• Military psychology
• Applied Psychology
• Engineering psychology
• Clinical (medical psychology)
• Neuropsychology
• Pathopsychology
• Psychosomatics and psychology of corporeality
• Oncopsychology
• Psychotherapy
• Pedagogical psychology
• Psychology of art
• Parenting psychology
• Work psychology
• Sports psychology
• Psychology of management
• Economic psychology
• Ethnopsychology
• Legal psychology
• Criminal psychology
• Forensic psychology

As it is easy to see, there are many branches of psychology, and different directions study different aspects of a person's personality and his activities. Which section will be to your liking personally, you can determine by reading each of them yourself. In our course, we consider human psychology in general, without highlighting any directions, types or sections, but making it possible to use new skills in any area of ​​life.

Application of psychological knowledge

The application of psychological knowledge is absolutely necessary and useful in any area of ​​human activity: family, study, science, work, business, friendship, love, creativity, etc. But it is important to learn how to apply the relevant knowledge in different situations. After all, what can work effectively in communicating with work colleagues may not work at all in a relationship with a loved one. What is family-friendly may not be creative. Although, of course, there are general techniques that are universal and work almost always and everywhere.

Knowledge of psychology gives a person many advantages: it develops and makes him more erudite, educated, interesting, versatile. A person with psychological knowledge is able to understand the true reasons for the events occurring to him (and others), realize the motives of his behavior and understand the motives of the behavior of others. Knowledge of human psychology is the ability to solve many problems with significantly greater speed and efficiency, an increase in the ability to withstand adversity and setbacks, the ability to achieve outstanding results where others cannot. The skill of applying psychological knowledge, provided it is systematically and regularly consolidated, will make you a stronger person with significant advantages over others. You can list all the advantages for a very, very long time. But, as they say, it is better to see once than hear a hundred times. And drawing an analogy with this proverb, we can say that it is better to apply once than read a hundred times.

It is also worth noting that the knowledge of psychology has long been applied by you in everyday life. But only this is done spontaneously, unconsciously and without understanding what kind of strength, power and potential this knowledge actually carries in itself. And if you really want to get closer to your “better self” and improve your life, this can and should be deliberately learned.

How can I learn this?

Naturally, knowledge about psychology is not present with us from birth, but is formed during life. Someone, of course, has a predisposition for psychology. Such people often become psychologists, intuitively understand people, look at life a little differently. Others have to specifically study psychological knowledge, put more effort and patience to assimilate them. But, in any case, you can learn everything. And to master the skill of applying psychological knowledge - even more so. Moreover, you can do it yourself.

There are two aspects of teaching this skill - theoretical and practical.

• The theoretical aspect of psychology- this is the knowledge that is taught in educational institutions, as well as given in the presented course;
• The practical aspect of psychology is the application of new knowledge in life, i.e. transition from theory to practice.

But it often happens that a theory remains a theory, because people simply do not know what to do with the information they now possess. Any lessons, courses, trainings, lectures, seminars, etc. should be aimed at the practical application of knowledge in real life.

Taking this feature into account, the course was compiled, the introduction to which you are now reading. The purpose of this course is not only to give you a good theoretical base of psychological knowledge, but also to teach you to use this knowledge. All lessons of the course have a two-way focus - this is theory and practice. The theoretical part contains the most important knowledge on the topic of human psychology and represents their quintessence. The practical part, in turn, consists of recommendations, advice, psychological methods and techniques, calculated on the fact that you will use them.

This course "Human Psychology" is:

• Material, systematized and understandable to any person, presented in a simple, interesting and accessible form.
• A collection of useful tips and tricks that are easy to put into practice from day one.
• The opportunity to see yourself and your life, as well as other people from a new, previously unknown to you side.
• The ability to increase the level of your intelligence, education and erudition to several levels, which undoubtedly plays a significant role in the life of a modern person.
• The ability to find the main motivating force that will motivate you to go only forward and achieve success.
• An opportunity to grow as a person, and improve the level and quality of your life.
• The opportunity to learn how to establish contact with any people (from your own children and parents to bosses and hooligans on the street).
• The way to come to harmony and happiness.

Do you want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how it suits you, you can take our test. In each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you have selected one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to the next question.

Psychology lessons

Having studied a lot of theoretical materials, choosing the most important and adapting for practical application, we have created a series of lessons on human psychology. They consider the most popular sections and areas of psychology, provide data from scientific research and the opinions of specialists. But the most important thing is that the emphasis of each lesson is made precisely on practical advice and recommendations.

How to take classes?

The information from the lessons of this course is fully adapted for use in practice and is suitable for absolutely everyone. The most important thing here, as has been said more than once, is the transition from theory to practice. You can read smart books for years and know a lot of things, but all this will be zero if it remains just a baggage of knowledge.

You can divide the study of all lessons into several stages. For example, set yourself a task, study 2 lessons per week: 1 day - study the material, 2 days - check in practice, 1 day - day off, etc. But you need not just read, but study: carefully, consciously, purposefully. The very same tips and practical recommendations presented in the lessons are important not just to check or apply once, but to systematically introduce them into your daily activities. Get in the habit of always remembering that you are studying human psychology - this will automatically make you want to apply something new in life over and over again. The skill of applying psychological knowledge in practice will eventually become refined and automatic, because it depends more on experience. And our lessons are precisely aimed at teaching you how to get this experience and give it the right direction.

Supplements and support materials:

Psychological games and exercises

Games and exercises designed specifically to learn about the peculiarities of the human psyche. There are different types of such games and exercises: for children and for adults, massive and single, for men and for women, arbitrary and purposeful, etc. The use of psychological games and exercises helps people understand others and themselves, form some qualities and get rid of others, etc. This includes exercises for the development of various qualities, overcoming stress, increasing self-esteem, role-playing, developmental, health games and many other games and exercises.

Chapter 1 Psychology as a Science

Despite the fact that psychology is a relatively young science, its role in modern society is great. For a hundred years from the moment psychology was called an independent science, it has had a significant impact on the understanding of the nature of man, the characteristics of his psyche. The popularity of psychology can be easily explained - it studies everything that is connected with a person. It is quite natural that most of us want to understand why people behave in one way or another in different situations, to be able to predict the reaction of their interlocutors, to influence the thoughts and actions of others. These and many other questions are an area of ​​research in the science of psychology.

Psychology Is a science that studies the laws, patterns of development and functioning of the psyche. The term "psychology" is formed from two words: "psyche" (Greek. ????" - soul) and "logos" (Greek. ??"??? - word, knowledge, thought). Thus, psychology is the science of the human soul.

The subject of study psychology at different stages of development of scientific knowledge were considered different phenomena.

For example, since ancient times, the subject of psychology was considered soul. Ancient Greek philosophers put forward the idea of ​​a soul in unity with the human body. It was believed that the soul conditions all bodily processes, controls the thoughts and feelings of a person.

Later, the subject of psychology began to be considered consciousness. Consciousness is the ability of a subject to relate himself to the world, to oppose himself to it. Thus, the active interaction of a person with the external environment began to be considered as a subject of science.

Within the framework of the first psychological school created by Wilhelm Wundt, human experience began to be considered the subject of psychology. Wundt used the method of introspection for research - observation of his own mental processes (self-observation). Psychology as a science was supposed to study not only individual features of sensation or perception, but also judgments, emotional assessments.

Later, as a subject of science, they began to consider activity and behavior a person, proceeding from the fact that it is easiest to recognize a person by his actions.

According to the opposite point of view, the subject of psychology is unconscious motives and needs human; it is believed that a person is driven by instincts and drives displaced from consciousness.

In its most general form, the subject of psychology can be considered patterns of formation, development and formation of the human psyche, human connection with nature and society.

Psyche- this is the ability to reflect the objective world with its connections and relationships, the totality of mental processes.

There are two main stages in the development of the psyche - elementary sensory and perceptual.

For each stage, several levels of development can be distinguished:

- the lowest level of the elementary sensory psyche is inherent in the simplest creatures, multicellular organisms. It is characterized by an underdeveloped sensitivity, a reaction only to significant properties of the environment by changing the speed and direction of movement. The movements at this stage are not purposeful;

- the highest level of elementary sensory psyche is possessed by worms, molluscs and a number of invertebrates. This level is characterized by the presence of sensations, reactions to both directly influencing and neutral stimuli, the ability to avoid unfavorable conditions;

- the lowest level of the perceptual psyche is inherent in fish, lower vertebrates, insects. This level is characterized by the variety and complexity of movements, the search for positive stimuli and the avoidance of negative environmental factors;

- the highest level of perceptual psyche is possessed by higher vertebrates - birds and a number of mammals. At this stage, animals show a persistent ability to learn, they are amenable to training;

- the highest level of perceptual psyche is characteristic of primates, dogs, dolphins. This level means the ability to both act according to an already known pattern and look for new ways to solve the problem, as well as the ability to use various kinds of tools.

The human psyche is the highest point in the evolution of the psyche of living beings due to the presence of consciousness, speech, and cultural characteristics.

The human psyche is a rather complex formation. There are three main groups of mental phenomena:

- mental processes;

- mental states;

- mental properties.

Mental processes- reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. Mental processes can be caused from the outside or be the result of the action of internal stimuli.

All mental processes, in turn, can be divided into three groups:

a) cognitive processes - sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination;

b) emotional processes - emotions, feelings, experiences;

c) volitional processes - will, decision-making, etc.

Mental processes are closely interconnected, provide information about the external world and shape human activity.

In addition to the individual, there are interpersonal mental processes (communication, interpersonal relationships) and group processes (the formation of group norms and the moral and psychological climate, conflicts, cohesion).

Mental condition- a stable characteristic of a person's mental activity for a certain period of time. The mental state is manifested in a decrease or increase in the activity of the individual. For example, mental states include states of alertness or fatigue; various emotional states - sadness, sadness, cheerful mood. Conditions of this kind arise as a result of the impact on a person of a whole kind of factors - the characteristics of communication with other people, the degree and nature of satisfying needs, obtaining a particular result, etc.

Mental properties- stable formations that provide a typical style of activity for a person and features of his behavior.

Among the mental properties of a person can be distinguished:

a) life position - a system of needs, beliefs, interests that affects a person's life;

b) temperament - a system of natural personality traits, such as mobility and balance of the nervous system, affecting a person's perception of the external world and his relationship with other people;

c) abilities - a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional properties that determines the creative potential of a person;

d) character - a system of mental properties of a person that determines the characteristics of a person's behavior and relationships with other people.

Psychology is associated with a number of sciences that study a person in one way or another - with the philosophical, social and natural sciences - occupying an intermediate place between them.

Philosophy can be considered the progenitor of a number of sciences, including psychology. It was within the framework of philosophy that the speech about man, his nature, and personal characteristics first came up. Psychology as a separate science has put a person in the center of its attention, studying the role of the psyche in his life. In addition to mental processes, psychology also studies the characteristics of the evolutionary development of a person, his physique and the nervous system. Within the framework of the physiology and anatomy of the central nervous system (CNS), the question of the relationship between mental processes and the human CNS is considered. In addition to studying the individual personality, psychology considers issues of group interaction, human behavior in society.

Psychology contains a number of disciplines - areas that study various facets of mental phenomena, human behavior.

General psychology studies the general laws of the psyche of humans and animals.

Differential psychology - a branch of psychology that studies individual psychological differences between people.

Social Psychology studies the patterns of formation of groups, behavior and communication of people in groups, the problems of leadership in a group. Within the framework of social psychology, large (peoples, classes, etc.) and small (work collectives, families, etc.) groups are studied.

Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of personality formation in the process of teaching and upbringing, the characteristics of the development of students, the interaction between students and teachers, as well as factors affecting the success of training.

Age-related psychology studies the patterns and features of the development of a person's personality inherent in a particular age period.

Psychodiagnostics studies with the help of research methods of the psyche, some individual characteristics of a person. The most famous diagnostic methods are tests, questionnaires, questionnaires.

Work psychology studies the peculiarities of a person's labor activity and makes it possible to determine the characteristics of the formation and development of labor skills and abilities in a person, working capacity and endurance of workers. Labor psychology has a number of sections depending on the type of activity and work performed. For example, engineering, aviation, space psychology can be distinguished.

Legal psychology examines the features of the behavior of participants in the pre-trial and trial process, the personality of the offender. There are several types of legal psychology: forensic, criminal and corrective labor psychology.

Medical psychology studies issues related to health and mental disorders of people. In addition, within the framework of medical psychology, the issues of the course of various normal and pathological conditions - stress, affect, anxiety are considered. Medical psychology includes sections such as neuropsychology and psychotherapy.

Parapsychology is not considered a scientific discipline by many, but it remains quite popular. Parapsychology studies the features of the emergence and manifestation of various human paranormal abilities, such as telepathy, telekinesis, clairvoyance.

It should be noted that in connection with the emergence of new sciences or social phenomena, the number of areas of psychology is increasing. For example, relatively recently arose environmental psychology.

Literature

1. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to General Psychology. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1988.

2. Godefroy J. What is psychology. - M .: Mir, 1997.

3. Luria A.R. General psychology. - SPb .: Peter, 2004.

4. R.S. Nemov Psychology. Book 1. - M .: Center VLADOS, 2003.

5. Pershina L.A. General psychology. - M .: Academic project, 2004.

6. Psychology. Dictionary / Under total. ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M .: Politizdat, 1990.

7. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. In 2 volumes - T. 1. - M .: Pedagogy, 1989. This text is an introductory fragment.