By means of habitat, the space used by living organisms for existence is understood. Thus, the topic is directly related to the question of the vital activity of any creature. There are four types of habitat, there are also a variety of factors that convert external influence, so they should also be considered.
So, what is the animal habitat? The definition appeared in the nineteenth century - in the works of Russian physiologist Sechenov. Each living organism constantly interacts with the surrounding phenomena, which was decided to call the medium. Its role has a dual nature. On the one hand, all the life processes of organisms are associated with it directly - so animals get food, the climate is influenced by them, on the other, their existence has no less influence on the environment, which is largely determining it. Plants maintain the balance of oxygen and shadow the soil, the animals make it more loose. Virtually any change causes living organisms. Habitat needs a comprehensive study by each who want to have an idea of \u200b\u200bbiology. It is also important to know that some creatures can live in different conditions. Amphibians are born in an aquatic environment, and winter and eat often on land. Beetles living in the air often need soil or water for breeding.
The aqueous medium is a combination of all oceans, seas, glaciers and continental waters of our planet, the so-called hydrosphere, in addition, the snow of Antarctic, atmospheric fluids and those are also included in it, and those that are contained in organisms. It takes more than seventy percent of the surface with the bulk of the oceans and the seas. Water is an integral part of the biosphere, and not only water bodies, but also air, and soil. It is necessary for any organism for survival. Moreover, it is the water that distinguishes the Earth from the next planets. In addition, she played a key role in the development of life. It accumulates organic and inorganic substances, tolerates heat, form climate and is contained both in animals and plant cells. That is why the water medium is one of the most important.
A mixture of gases forming an atmosphere of the Earth plays a crucial role for all living organisms. Air habitat directed evolution, since oxygen forms high metabolism, which determines the structure of the respiratory organs and the water-salt metabolism system. Density, composition, humidity - all this is of serious importance for the planet. Oxygen was formed two billion years ago in the process of volcanic activity, after which its share in the air increased steadily. The modern human habitat differs in 21% of the content of this element. It is also important part of the ozone layer, which does not allow ultraviolet radiation to get to the surface of the Earth. Without her, life on the planet could be destroyed. Now the safe habitat of a person is under threat - the ozone layer is destroyed due to negative environmental processes. This leads to the need for conscious behavior and permanent choice of the best not only for people, but also for the Earth decisions.
Many living organisms live in Earth. The habitat is also used by plants that serve as food for most living bees of the planet. It is impossible to definitely determine whether the soil is inanimate formation, therefore it is called a biocosa body. According to the definition, this substance that has been reworked in the process of livelihoods of organisms. The soil habitat consists of a solid mass, including sand, clay, or particles; liquid component; gaseous - this is air; Alive is creatures, its inhabitants, all sorts of microorganisms, invertebrates, bacteria, mushrooms, insects. At each hectare of land there are five tons of such forms. The soil habitat is intermediate between the aquatic and ground-air, therefore, the organisms living in it are often characterized by a combined type of respiration. You can meet such creatures even at an impressive depth.
Each creature differs from the presence of metabolism and cellular organization. The interaction with the medium occurs constantly and should be studied comprehensively due to the complexity of the processes. Each organism directly depends on what is happening around. The ground-air habitat of a person affects him with precipitation, soil conditions and temperature range. Some of the processes are useful for the body, some are indifferent, and others bring harm. Everyone has a separate definition. For example, homeostasis is the constancy of the internal system, which are distinguished by living organisms. Habitat can change that requires adaptation - movements, growth, development. Metabolism - metabolism accompanied by chemical reactions, such as breathing. Chemosynthesis call the process of creating organic organics from sulfur or nitrogen compounds. Finally, it is worth remembering the definition of ontogenesis. This is a combination of organism transformations, which are affected by all habitat factors for the entire period of its existence.
For a better understanding of biological processes, it is also necessary to explore this definition. are a complex of surrounding conditions that affect the living organism. They are divided according to a difficult classification into several species. The adaptation to them is called adaptation, and its external appearance, reflecting the habitat factors, is the name of life form.
This is one of the types of environmental factors affecting living organisms. The habitat includes salts and elements that come with water and food. Biogenic of them are those that are needed in large quantities for the body. For example, it is phosphorus, important for the formation of protoplasm, and nitrogen, the basis for protein molecules. The source of the first are dead organisms and rock rocks, and the second is atmospheric air. The lack of phosphorus affects the existence is almost as acute as the lack of water. A little inferior by the meaning of such elements as calcium, potassium, magnesium and sulfur. The first is necessary for shells and bones. Potassium ensures the work of the nervous system and the growth of plants. Magnesium is included in chlorophyll molecules and ribosomes, and sulfur is the composition of amino acids and vitamins.
There are other processes affecting living organisms. The habitat includes factors such as light, climate and similar, which are by definition as abiotic. Without them, the processes of breathing and photosynthesis, metabolism, seasonal flights, reproduction of many animals are impossible. First of all, the light is important. Its length, intensity and duration of exposure are taken into account. In relation to Him, a whole classification is allocated, which is studied by biology. The habitat, filled with light, needs heliophitis - meadow and steppe cereals, weeds, tundra plants. Scalophytes are needed shadow, they prefer to live under the woods of the forest - these are forest herbs. Optional helophids can be adapted to any conditions: such a class includes trees, strawberries, geranium. No less important factor is the temperature. Each body has a specific range, comfortable for vital activity. Water, the presence of chemicals in the soil and even fires - all this also concerns the abiotic sphere.
Water, air or terrestrial habitat is always associated with human activity. People are intensively changed by the world around them, strongly affecting its processes. Anthropogenic factors include each impact on organisms, landscape or biosphere. It can be direct if it is directed at living beings: for example, incorrect hunting and fisheries undermine the number of certain types. Another option is an indirect impact when a person changes the landscape, climate, air condition and water, the structure of the soil. Consciously or unconsciously, but a person destroys many types of animals or plants, while cultivating others. So a new environment appears. There are also random types of exposure, such as a sudden factory of alien organisms with cargo, misuse of the marshes, the creation of dams, the spread of pests. However, some creatures die out without any participation of a person, so accused people in all environmental problems just unfairly.
All sorts of influence on organisms from all sides is manifested in varying degrees. Sometimes substances that are required in minimal quantities are key. Accordingly, it was designed by it suggests that its endurance is considered the weakest in the chain of the body's needs. Thus, if there are all elements in the soil, except for one needed for growth - the crop will be bad. If you add only the missing, leaving all the other in your previous quantity - it will become better. If you add all the rest, without correcting the lack, no changes will occur. The missing item in such a situation will be a limiting factor. However, it is worth considering the maximum impact. It describes the law of the tolerance of Sheford, assumed that there is only a certain range in which the factor may remain beneficial for the body, in excess it becomes malicious. The ideal conditions are called the optimum zone, and deviations from the norm - oppression. Maxims and minima of influences are the name of critical points, followed by the existence of the body simply impossible. The degree of tolerance to one or another variations are different for each living creature and allow them to relate to more or less enduring varieties.
Under the human environment, in general, they understand the "a set of natural and artificial conditions in which a person implements itself as a natural and social being." The human environment consists of 2 interconnected parts: natural and public; Natural is the entire planet Earth, public - society and public relations.
The classification of the human environment done by the famous domestic systematizer in the field of ecology N. F. Reimers is the greatest interest. He allocated four interrelated medium components: natural; The medium generated by the agricultural engineering, the so-called "second nature" - quasi-rod; artificial environment - the third nature or arrangement; Social environment (see Table).
The natural component of the human environment in N. F. Reymmers is, the natural environment itself ("First Nature"). It makes up the factors of natural and anthropous-grained origin, directly or indirectly affecting a person. To their number, it refers the energy state of the medium (thermal and wave, including magnetic and gravitational fields); chemical and dynamic character; aqueous component (, earth surface; chemical composition of water); physical, chemical and mechanical nature of the surface of the Earth (flatness, hillyness, horizon, for example); The appearance and composition of the biological part of environmental systems (, animal, microbial population) and their landscape combinations, population density and mutual influence of people on the biological factor, etc. This environment is either weakly changed by a person or to the extent that it has not lost the most important property - self-healing and self-regulation.
In absolute terms, most of these territories fall into the Russian Federation.
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WEDNESDAY |
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Natural |
Quasi-photo native |
ARTHER native |
Social |
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Elements of natural and anthropotic origin capable of natural self-sustaining |
Anthropous elements origin not capable of systemic self-sustaining |
Elements of anthropogenic origin (artificial), not capable of systemic self-sustaining. |
Culturally psychological climate, folding in the process of interaction between people with each other. |
Wednesday "The Second Nature" (Quasi-Rod, from Lat. The Kvazy language is as if these are elements of the natural environment, artificially transformed, modified with agrotechnology. In contrast to natural, they are not able to systemically self-force themselves for a long time. It is destroyed without permanent human intervention. It includes arable and other people transformed by man (cultural landscapes), ground roads, space of populated areas with natural characteristics and internal structure (with fences, buildings, various and thermal modes, green stripes, ponds, etc.). N. F. Reimers to the "Second Nature" made also pets, indoor cultivated plants.
Created by a person Wednesday or the "third nature" (arrangement, from lat. - artificial) on the Raymers - This is the whole artificially created by a man who has no analogues in natural nature and without constant maintaining and updating a person inevitably collapsing. It refers to the asphalt and concrete of modern cities, space of life and work, transport, service, technological equipment, furniture, etc. As one of the elements of the arrangement medium is also a cultural and architectural environment. The person is mainly surrounded by the arrangement environment.
And the last element of the human environment is society and a variety of social processes - social environment .. This environment has an increasingly greater impact on a person. It includes the relationship between people, the psychological climate, the level of material security, health care, general cultural values, the degree of confidence in the future and the like.
Thus, the human medium form a natural, quasi-apronal, ariprin and social, which are closely interrelated and none of them can be replaced by another. L. V. Maksimova offers another classification of the human environment, the originality of which is the study of the "life environment".
Wednesday - This is a combination of factors and elements affecting the body at its habitat. Any living creature lives in conditions of constant change of environmental factors, adapting to them and regulating their livelihoods in accordance with these changes. Living organisms exist as mobile systems, open energy and environmental information.
Natural environment represents human habiting and resources for life. The development of man's economic activity improves the conditions for its existence, but requires an increase in the spending of natural, energy and material resources. During industrial and agricultural production, waste is formed, which, together with the production processes themselves, violate and pollute biogeocenoses, gradually worsening human habitat.
Biological factors, or driving forces of evolution, are common to all wildlife, including for humans. These include hereditary variability and natural selection.
The adaptation of organisms to the effects of environmental factors is called adaptation. The ability to adapt is one of the most important properties of the living. Only adapted organisms survive in the process of evolution of signs, useful for life. These signs are fixed in generations due to the ability of organisms to reproduction.
Changes in the medium as a result of the effects of anthropogenic factors: 1) change in the structure of the earth's surface; 2) a change in the composition of the atmosphere; 3) change in the cycle of substances; 4) a change in the qualitative and quantitative composition of flora and fauna; 5) greenhouse effect; 6) noise pollution; 7) Military actions.
The irrational human activity led to violations of all components of the biosphere.
Atmosphere:Main sources of pollution - Cars and industrial enterprises. Early in the atmosphere, cut and carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides are ejected. In addition, a large amount of fine particles forming the so-called atmospheric aerosol is thrown into the atmosphere. Due to the burning of coal into the atmosphere, mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium in quantities exceeding their involvement in the cycle of substances are coming.
Hydrosphere:The main reason for the pollution of the water basin is the discharge of untreated wastewater industrial and utilities, as well as agricultural land. Washing in the river mineral fertilizers and keriformicates is the reason for the deterioration of the quality of drinking water and the death of many types of water animals. A huge amount of lead, oil and petroleum products, domestic waste, pesticides fall into the water.
Lithosphere:A fertile layer of soil is formed for a long time, and tens of millions of tons of potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen are made of the cultivation of crops from the soil, tens of millions of tons of potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen are the main elements of plant nutrition. An adverse effect of soil irrigation has an adverse effect, since it is most often a fear of or salinization of the surface layer of the soil. Among the anthropogenic changes in the soil is of great importance to erosion - the destruction and demolition of the upper fertile layer of the soil.
Environmental differentiation of mankind.
Artificial medium contributes to the level of direct impact of natural environmental factors per person. However, for most of the history of the view, natural environmental factors (climatic, geochemical, biological) acted on it. The consequences of this pressure are preserved in modern humanity in the form of adaptive types of people.
Adaptive type - The rate of biological response to the prevailing habitat conditions and is manifested in the development of a complex of morphofunctional, biochemical and immunological signs that determine the best fitness to a certain environment.
The complex of signs of adaptive types from different geographic zones is divided into two groups of elements:
General specific
Bone-muscular indicators - related to predominant conditions
body masses; In this place of habitat: hypoxia,
The number of immune proteins is hot or cold climate.
serum.
The combination of common and specific elements is the basis for the allocation of adaptive types: Arctic;
tropical; Moderate climate zones; alpine; Deserts and semi-deserts, etc.
Features of a certain adaptive type are formed in embryogenesis. Thus, the differences in the proportions of the body between neurodes and the Europeanoids are quite noticeable by the end of the intrauterine period of development.
Environmental factors affecting the formation of type:
Arctic type - Strong development of the musculoskeletal system, consume more meat food, the size of the chest is greater, the high level of hemoglobin, minerals in the bones.
Tropical type - Consumes less animal protein, warm and wet climate, low indicators of the main exchange, elongated body shape, reduced muscle mass, reduce the circumference of the chest, intensive sweating due to the increased amount of sweat glands.
Moderate type - the richness of the animal world, seasonal rhythms of nature, uneven distribution of heat and moisture, in somatic indicators occupies an intermediate position between the resident of the Arctic and tropical regions.
Alpine type - Hypoxia is the main factor for the formation of signs, increased the level of the main exchange, the elongation of the long tubular bones of the skeleton, the expansion of the chest, an increase in oxygen in the blood due to an increase in red blood cells.
Desert type - lowering the main exchange, less hemoglobin.
The result of social factors is the formation and regular shift in the historical development of the economic and cultural types of community of people. The formation of economic and cultural types depends on the natural habitat of people. This dependence was the most stronger early stages of the development of human society. However, even then, especially in later periods of development of humanity, the dependence of the formation of economic and cultural types from natural conditions was mediated by the level of socio-economic development of the people.
Anthropogenic ecosystems.
A distinctive feature of anthropogenic ecosystems is that the dominant environmental factor in them is represented by community of people and products of its production and social activities.
In an anthropogenic ecosystem, artificial medium prevails over natural.
The most important modern anthropogenic ecosystems: cities, rural settlements, transport communications.
Cities - a special habitat. Despite the fact that the urbanization in general is a progressive phenomenon, however, a number of problems arise:
1. Changes in the natural environment.
2. Abundance of waste.
3. A favorable environment is created for the spread of infectious and inversion diseases.
4. Reduces the duration of solar lighting.
5. The high density of the population leads to the overvoltage of the nervous system.
6. Falling physical activity.
7. Power unbalance.
A man in a competitive struggle for survival in the natural environment began to build its artificial anthropogenic ecosystems. At the present stage, it is forced to change the natural ecosystems and even destroy them to satisfy his ever-increasing needs and even destroy them.
Energy - This is the initial driving force of ecosystems, and all - and natural and anthropogenic. Energy resources of these systems may be inexhaustible - the sun, wind, tides and exhausted - fuel and energy (coal, oil, gas, etc.). Using fuel, a person can add to the system or even completely subsidize energy.
Thus, natural ecosystems "work" to maintain their viability and their own development without any worries and costs from human, moreover, they create a noticeable share of food and other materials necessary for the life of the person himself. But most importantly, it is here that large volumes of air are cleared, returned to the turnover of fresh water, climate and others are formed.
The anthropogenic ecosystems work quite differently. These include agroecosystems, aquacultures that produce food and fibrous materials, but not only due to the energy of the Sun, and the subsidy of it in the form of a fuel supplied by a person.
These systems come to natural, since the self-development of cultivated plants during the growing season is the process of natural and caused by natural solar energy. But the preparation of soil, sowing, harvest, etc. - this is already the energy costs of a person. Moreover, a person practically changes the natural ecosystem, which is expressed, first of all, in simplification, that is, a decrease in species diversity, up to a highly simplified monocultural system.
Sustainable appearance of new species, for example, grassy plants, is the result of a natural sucessional process. What we call weeds is nothing more than pioneering plants, pests - insects and other animals, and causative agents of diseases - microorganisms. Weighing plants, pests and diseases can destroy the entire harvest if they are not actively fighting them.
As population grows, people will be forced to convert all new mature ecosystems into simple young productive. To maintain these systems in the "young" age will increase the use of fuel and energy resources. In addition, there will be a loss of species (genetic) diversity and natural landscapes.
It is quite different is the case in industrial-urban ecosystems - here the energy of fuel completely replaces solar energy. Compared with the energy flow in natural ecosystems, its consumption for two or three orders is higher.
So, it should be noted that the Agroecosystems industrial-city ecosystems cannot exist without natural systems, while natural ecosystems may exist without anthropogenic.
The overall characteristic of the habitat. Technosphere. Biosphere.
One of the most important concepts of ecology is the habitat. Wednesday is a combination of factors and elements affecting the body at its habitat.
Any living creature lives in a difficult, ever-changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulates its livelihoods in accordance with its changes. Living organisms exist as open, mobile systems, resistant when the influx of energy and information from the environment. On our planet, living organisms have mastered four major habitats, each of which has a combination of specific factors and elements affecting the body.
Technosphere - This is part of the biosphere in the past, transformed by a person through direct or indirect impact of technical means in order to greatest compliance with its material and socio-economic needs.
Creating a technosphere, a person sought to improve the comfort of the environment, to the growth of communicability, to ensure protection against natural negative impacts. All this has a positive effect on living conditions and in conjunction with other factors (improvement of medical care, etc.) on the life expectancy of people.
But the creation of the technhosphere with the hands and intelligence of man, intended to satisfy his needs in comfort and security, did not justify the hope of people. Irregular economic activity, reinforced by the achievements of scientific and technological progress, led to damage and exhaustion of natural resources, changes in the regeneration mechanisms of the biosphere, the deformation of the substances and energy flows on the planet for many millions of years on the planet, violation of the dynamic equilibrium of the global earth socio-system.
In the global ecosystem, the biosphere, which is one whole, nothing can be won or lost, can not be the object of general improvement. All that was produced from her human labor should be returned.
This "bill of exchange" cannot be avoided, it can only be delayed.
Technosphere includes regions, cities, industrial zones, manufacturing and domestic environment. The new, technosphere includes human habitat conditions in cities and industrial centers, industrial, transport and domestic conditions of life.
Biosphere - Earth shell, populated by alive organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere was formed 500 million years ago, when the first organisms began to be born on our planet. It penetrates the entire hydrosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere, that is, inhabit the ecosphere. The biosphere is a totality of all living organisms. More than 3,000,000 species of plants, animals, mushrooms and bacteria live in it. Man is also part of the biosphere, its activities are superior to many natural processes.
The term "biosphere" was introduced in biology by Jean-Bathist Lamarmark at the beginning of the XIX century, and in geology proposed by the Austrian geologist Eduard Zyus in 1875.
Over time, the biosphere is becoming increasingly unstable. There are several tragic for humanity premature changes in the state of the biosphere, some of them are associated with the activities of humanity.
The state of the problem of BZD. BZK item.
Life safety (BC) is a science that studies the general properties and patterns of the influence of dangers and harmfulness per person and developing the basis for protecting it and habitat.
Purpose of study Safety of vital activity - the formation and propaganda of knowledge aimed at reducing mortality and loss of people's health from external factors and reasons. Creation of human protection in the technosphere from the external negative impacts of anthropogenic, technogenic and natural origin. Object protection is a man.
Subject of study Safety of vital activity - the dangers and their aggregate, as well as means and systems of protection against dangers.
BZD solves three interrelated tasks:
1. Hazard identification, i.e. Image recognition indicating quantitative characteristics and hazard coordinates
2. Danger protection based on costs and benefits.
3. Liquidation of possible (based on the concept of residual risk) negative hazards.
Axioms of BZK
The main provisions of life safety theory can be represented as a series of axioms.
Axioma 1.. Any activity is potentially dangerous.
This axiom involves the following: technical equipment, machinery and technology created by a person, other than positive properties and results, have the ability to generate hazards. For example, the creation of internal combustion engines solved many transport problems. But at the same time he led to increased injuries on roads, he gave rise to difficult tasks for the protection of a person and the natural environment from toxic emissions of cars.
Axioma 2. For each type of activity there are comfortable conditions that contribute to its maximum efficiency.
This axiom actually declares the principal possibility of optimizing any activity in terms of its safety and efficiency.
Axioma 3. Natural processes, anthropogenic activities and objects of activity have a tendency to spontaneous loss of sustainability and (or) the ability to long negative effect on the habitat, i.e. residual risk.
Axioma 4. The residual risk is the root cause of potential negative impacts per person, technosphere and natural environment (biosphere).
Axioma 5.. Safety is real if negative effects per person do not exceed the maximum permissible values, taking into account their complex impact.
The next axiom actually repeats the previous one, but refers to negative environmental impacts.
Axiom 6. Environmentally friendly is real if negative impacts on the biosphere do not exceed the maximum permissible values, taking into account their complex impact.
Axioma 7. The permissible values \u200b\u200bof technogenic negative impacts are ensured by compliance with environmental and safety requirements for technical systems, technologies and their regional complexes, as well as the use of ecobioschita systems.
Axioma 8. Ecobiosette systems on technical objects and in technological processes should have the priority of commissioning and control facilities.
Axioma 9. The safe and environmentally friendly operation of technical equipment and industries is implemented in accordance with the qualification and psychophysical indicators of the operator by the requirements of the developer of the technical system and subject to the operator of the norms and safety rules and environmentalities.
Danger
Danger is a property of lively and inanimate matter, capable of causing damage to man, natural environment and material values \u200b\u200b(resources).
All hazards on the sources of their occurrence (origin) it is customary to divide on natural and anthropogenic.
Natural dangers arise in natural phenomena in the biosphere, such as flooding, earthquakes, tsunami, etc., and are also due to climatic conditions and terrain. Their feature is the surprise of occurrence, although some of them have learned to predict, for example, hurricanes, landslides. Natural dangers that pose a threat to life and human health are distinguished into natural dangers. Hazards such as heat, cold, fog, natural electromagnetic fields and radiation, are usually not considered, because They do not pose the immediate threat to a person. Divided into lithospheric (mountain colors, stoneplaes), hydrosphere (water erosion, villages, tides), atmospheric (shower, snowfall), cosmic (solar radiation). The general patterns of such phenomena are as follows: the more intensity, the less the phenomenon; Each type of danger is preceded by certain signs; There is a certain spatial deritance.
Anthropogenic hazards are mainly associated with the transformative human activity. The sources of anthropogenic hazards are the people, as well as technical means, buildings, structures - everything that is created by a person (elements of the technosphere). Damage from anthropogenic hazards is higher than the more density and the energy level of man-made means (technical systems). A person always interacts with technical means (tools of labor, household appliances), which help him in labor and everyday life, and on the other hand, are the source of so-called man-made hazards. Technogenic hazards affect the person and in nature. The danger to a person is determined by the characteristics of the technical systems and the length of the human being in the danger zone.
In a special group of dangers, environmental and social. Social hazards are those who are common in society and threaten the lives and health of people. By nature, social hazards are divided into related: with mental influence on a person (blackmail, fraud, theft, etc.); with physical violence (robbery, banditry, terror, rape, storing, etc.); with the use of substances that destroy the body (alcoholism, drug addiction, tobacocuria, etc.); with social diseases (AIDS, venereal, etc.); with suicide. In the age of age are divided into characteristic of children, young people, women, the elderly. Organizations are random and organized, on the scale - local, regional, global. At its heart, these dangers are generated by socio-economic processes in society. They are contradictory by nature due to the imperfection of human nature. The development of international relations, tourism and sports contributes to their distribution.
Environmental hazards will consider such that directly in everyday life activity affect human health through food, water, air, soil. These dangers are higher than the more environmental pollution by human activity: pesticides, heavy metals, dioxins, dust, soot, herbicides, etc. Detailed classification of these hazards is considered in the course "Ecology".
In all cases, when exposed to any hazards, the main measures of protection against dangers is: the exclusion of dangers; Blocking the dangers and organizational and technical measures aimed at reducing these hazards to permissible limits.
The reasons.
Wood.Any danger is implemented, bringing damage as a consequence of some reason or several reasons, so the prevention of hazards or protection from them is possible only when reasons. There is a causal relationship between realized hazards and reasons: the danger is a consequence of a certain reason, which, in turn, is a consequence of another cause, etc. Thus, the causes and hazards form hierarchical, chain structures, or systems. The graphic image of such dependencies resembles a branching tree, therefore, in the literature analyzing the safety of objects, such terms such as the "tree of the reasons", "tree of failures", "tree of events", etc. In the trees under construction, there are branches of the causes and branches of dangers, reflecting The dialectical nature of causal relationships. The separation of these branches is inappropriate, and sometimes it is impossible, therefore, graphic images obtained in the process of analyzing the safety of objects are called "trees of causes and dangers." Building "trees" is an effective procedure for identifying the causes of various undesirable events (accidents, injuries, fires, accidents, etc.). Branch boundaries are determined by the logical expediency of obtaining new branches and determine the resolution of the tree.
Risk
The risk is the ratio of the number of certain adverse manifestations of hazards to their possible number for a certain period of time.
R rine (1 / year), N- The number of adverse manifestations of danger over a certain period of time (year), N-possible number of danger manifestations for the same period
Types of risk: A) individual and social risk.
Individual risk is characterized by the realization of the danger of a certain type of activity for a particular individual. Accident frequency coefficient.
QC \u003d T * 1000 / p, T - the number of accidents (injuries) occurred during a certain period of time. P is the average number of workers in the same period.
Individual risk is characterized by a danger to a separate person.
Group, or social, risk is the relationship between the frequency of incident (accidents, disasters) and the number of people affected by them.
B) also distinguish direct and indirect risk.
Direct risk is associated with a direct effect on a person of one or another danger, such as moving parts of the equipment. Polluting OS waste of their activities, a person exposes itself to indirect risk, since a man-changed can, ultimately, become unsuitable for its existence in it.
Concept of acceptable risk. In modern conditions, absolute security was transferred to the concept of permissible (acceptable) risk, the essence of which in the desire for such a danger, which the society will take on this period of time.
Acceptable risk Currently, according to international agreement, it is believed that the effect of man-made hazards (technical risk) must be in the range from 10 -7 ... 10 -6 (1 / year -1), and the value of 10 -6 is the maximum acceptable level of individual risk. In national rules, this value is used to evaluate fire safety and radiation safety. In some countries, for example, in Holland, acceptable risks are established in the legislative order.
Negregably small is considered the individual risk of death 10 -8 per year.
For ecosystems, the maximum acceptable risk is the one at which 5% of biogeocenosis species may suffer.
Motivated (reasonable) and unmotivated (unreasonable) risk. In the case of industrial accidents, fires, in order to save people and material values, a person has to go on a risk exceeding acceptable. In this case, the risk considered reasonable (motivated). For a number of hazardous factors, such as radiation accidents arising in the case of radiation accidents, the magnitudes of motivated risk exceeding an acceptable risk - "Planned enradiation",allowable forces involved in the elimination of consequences of consequences.
unmotivated (unreasonable) The risk is called the risk exceeding an acceptable and arising from the reluctance of employees at the production of security requirements, use the means of protection, etc., which, as a rule, leads to injuries and forms the prerequisites of accidents at work.
In addition to collective acceptability, there is also individual acceptability, established for itself deliberately or unconsciously and is a balance between risk and benefits. At certain cases, people are ready to voluntarily go to risk, 1000 times more than acceptable. The decisive role in the adoption of such a decision lies in human psychology.
Methods
Fundssecurity
Tools of collective protection - ventilation, grounding, reducing the fence.
Individual protection (PPE) - special clothing, gas masks, earplugs, helmets.
Improving system reliability. Under reliability it is understood as the property of the system to perform the specified functions, keeping the values \u200b\u200bof the established indicators in time.
Reliability indicators: a) average trouble-free operation time; b) the probability of trouble-free operation; c) failure intensity. Indicators of maintainability: the probability of recovery; average recovery time; Recovery intensity.
Psychology of BZK
Psychology is a science of psychological reflection of reality in the process of human activity. In psychology allocate several industries, including labor psychology, engineering psychology, security psychology.
Psychology of labor - studies the psychological aspects of labor activity. The psychology of labor, which arose at the turn of 19-20VV., Was originally called psychotechnics.
Engineering psychology - studies the processes of human interaction with technical systems, as well as the requirements for the design of machinery and instruments, taking into account the psychological properties of a person.
Security psychology - studies psychological aspects of activities. The subject of security psychology is the psychological processes, the state and properties of the person affecting the safety conditions.
In other words, the psychology of safety is studying psychological, i.e. Human-dependent, causes of accidents and develops methods and means of protection against them.
Security psychology is a fundamental aspect of anthropogenic hazards, which spends the problem of man's role as the main participant in accidents and accidents.
The main task of the security psychology is to clarify the psychological causes of accidents.
The causes of production accidents and injuries associated with the human factor are combined by three main directions
Anthropogenic causes of accidents
The degree of danger in the labor process depends on the nature of production activities. Automation of production, eliminating physical work, replaces its high neuropsychic load per person. Due to the increased load on mental activity, people may occur sharp protracted and chronic neuropsychiatric disorders.
Many years of experience shows that with each accident and accidentally trace human errors contributing to tragic consequences.
Under erroneous actions, acts deviate from the provisions provided for regulatory actions or from the right decisions of the PR normal situations are divided into systematic and random. 
Social hazards.
Social dangers - These are the actions of some classes, groups, layers, personalities, directed (deliberately or unconsciously) to destroy others. As well as deprivation of their vital conditions and objects, causing damage leading to physical and spiritual degradation, destruction of the personality, ethnos, society, states.
Conditionally social hazards can be reduced in three groups:
1. Outgoing from other spheres of public life - politics, economics, military defense cases, etc.;
2. arising from the social sphere for economics, policies, military and environmental safety, etc.;
3. Prisoners in the social sphere.
Particularly destructive dangers for the social sphere are based primarily from politics and economics. Real and potential shock therapy policies on the national industrial complex (about 50% of economic power), health, education, recreation systems, etc. are lost. Painfully responds to the position and health of people, lead to the loss of food, medical and pharmaceutical, spiritual and cultural independence, to the subordination of Russia west in the most important issues of the life support of the people. Some Western policies believe that the one who has food is a weapon, an equivalent atomic bomb and can talk with the world of food force. Food and commercial intervention inflicted irreparable damage to agriculture of the country: more than 50% of the country's population needs are satisfied with imported supplies.
The second group of social hazards is associated with antagonization, approval of an imperfect social structure and relationships. Formation and growth of aggressive, expansionist, extremist social groups and layers (large owners, financial, trade and mafia deltsi), separation of society on the poor and rich by robbery by most minority (which, as the Plato said, is equivalent to the emergence of two hostile states inside one) , the emergence of humiliated and oppressed groups, strengthening the capacity of hostility inside the social structure give rise to a whole premium of social hazards for society as a whole, as well as its main spheres - politicians, economics, science and technology, military security. Social reasons underlie many, including armed conflicts.
In the UN Secretary-General B.Gali in 1992, the "Peace Development Program" of the deep reasons of armed conflicts coming in the world, economic troubles, social injustice and political dictate are named.
Radical reforms led to the fact that more than 50 million (one third of the population) lives below the poverty line, and the hidden unemployment is 7-9 million people. The long-term increase in poverty for most people give rise to mass discontent with politics and authorities, which can pour out in unpredictable actions.
Social threats are classified according to the following features:
·\u003e In a focus against social interests (needs) of citizens, groups, layers and the whole society;
·\u003e On objects, institutions, areas of the social sphere, which they threaten (food supply and nutrition systems, health, utilities, etc.);
·\u003e Scales (destructive potential of hazards, spatio-temporal characteristics - general, regional, local, short-term, long-term, etc.);
·\u003e In the forms of manifestation (intentionally organized, natural, etc.);
·\u003e Sources and reasons;
·\u003e For funds (violent, non-violent, military, etc.).
Sources of social hazards are:
·\u003e Unjust distribution of property, income, vital goods, power;
·\u003e Restoration of an antagonistic social structure consisting of classes, groups, layers and political forces having irreconcilable opposite interests and goals, among which aggressive, expansionist in nature are distinguished;
·\u003e A sharp decline in the social capabilities of the state due to the decline in production, as well as large miscalculations and the initial antisocial focus of the policy of "radical reforms", their compulsory nature;
·\u003e The deterioration of the global social situation, as well as the desire of the West to strengthen the impact on Ukraine for the sake of its selfish interests.
Social hazards appear in the form of mass protests, unrest, social explosions, etc. The main indicators of social threats are the rate of increasing processes in the social structure and attitudes of the subjects, the sphere of social security of the vital activity of people.
Social security goals are:
·\u003e Providing a solid civil world based on justice, freedom, equality of opportunities and solidarity of people; purposeful formation of a socially safe state, society, personality;
·\u003e Conservation and development of society: reliable life protection, restoration and improvement of people's health and life, creating conditions and incentives for highly efficient creative labor, improving the abilities and talents, approval of high spirituality and culture;
·\u003e The formation and implementation of a socially-oriented policy of modernization of the Company, designed to restore and ensure in the future the sustainable socio-economic development of the country in the name of the common benefit of the people and each personality;
·\u003e The commensurate opportunity of the state to promote the improvement of the global social situation, participation in the formation of world politics and the construction of international structures, designed to overcome injustice, operation, poverty, hunger, mass epidemics, social diseases, etc.
All types of safety (military, political environmental, etc.) in a decisive extent depends on the salvation and improvement of production, raising the living standards of the people, restoring and strengthening its health, the development of culture, to increase its social activity, especially in the fields of economics and policies.
In general, it is unlikely to cause an objection to the assertion that the social security of a person, its habitat - the most important characteristic of the quality of life and the most important component of national wealth.
Examples of social hazards:
1. Alcoholism.
2. Military actions.
3. Terror by mail.
Natural dangers
Natural dangers - natural phenomena representing the immediate threat to the life and health of people, for example, earthquake, flood, tsunami, hurricanes, storm, soloch.
Earthquake – this is Underground oscillations or shocks that arise as a result of the displacement of the earth's crust or the top of the mantle.
Flooding - flooding of terrain as a result of water level rise.
Tsunami – this is Huge wave.
Hurricanes - this is Cyclones that occur in tropical latitudes, and the wind power reaches 64 nodes (74 miles per hour).
Storm - This is a shower, accompanied by a strong thunder of a squall, which can easily cause floods in the river, flood or union. The bora is often preceded by a thunderstorm, strong electric lightning discharges.
Tornado is an atmospheric phenomenon that occurs in a thunderstorm cloud. It is an air vortex propagating from the cloud down.
Lithospheric hazards.
Lithospheric danger is a dangerous natural phenomenon of geophysical origin, which is characterized by a sudden violation of the life of the population, the destruction of the destruction of material values \u200b\u200bof injuries and victims among people. Lithospheric hazards include: earthquake, landslides, villages, volcanoes, etc. They often have a negative environmental impact.
An earthquake is underground oscillations or shocks that arise as a result of the displacement of the earth's crust or the top of the mantle. The elastic oscillations of the earthquake can be transmitted to very long distances, which sometimes reach hundreds of kilometers. Here, as we understand, it all depends on the force of the earthquake.
Landslide - slaughtering and separating masses of rocks down the slope under the action of gravity.
Sel.- A stream with a very large concentration of mineral particles, rocks and rocks of rocks (up to 50-60% flow volume), which suddenly occurs in the pools of small mountain rivers and dry logs and caused, as a rule, storm sediments.
Volcanoes - Geological formations on the surface of the earth's crust or bark of another planet, where the magma comes to the surface, forming Lava, volcanic gases, stones (volcanic bombs) and pyroclastic flows.
Hydrospheric hazards.
Basic concepts about flooding
Flooding is a significant flooding of water water as a result of the water level rise in the river, a lake or a sea caused by various reasons. The flooding on the river comes from a sharp increase in the amount of water due to the melting of snow or glaciers located in its pool, as well as as a result of the abundant precipitation. Flooding is often caused by an increase in the water level in the river due to climbing the ice bed during ice-frequency (congestion) or due to clogging of the bed under the fixed ice cover of the intro-ice and the formation of an ice cork (burrow). Often, the floods arise under the action of winds that catch the water from the sea and causing a rise in the level due to the delay in the mouth of the river-brought water. Flooding of this type was observed in Leningrad (1824, 1924), the Netherlands (1953). On the sea coasts and islands, floods may occur as a result of the flooding of the coastal strip of wave formed during earthquakes or eruptions of volcanoes in the ocean (see tsunami). Such floods are often on the shores of Japan and on other islands of the Pacific Ocean. Floods can be caused by dams of dams, fender dam. Floods occur on many rivers of Western Europe - Danube, Seine, Ron, and others, as well as on the Yangtze and Juanhe rivers in China, Mississippi and Ohio in the United States. In the USSR, large floods were observed on r. Dnieper (1931) and Volga (1908 and 1926).
Flood classification
The cooling, burial floods (congestion, burgers) are a large resistance to the water stream in some areas of the river bed, which occurs when the ice material is accumulated in the narrowings or rays of the river during the ice-behable (litter) or ice driers (congestion). Spread floods are formed at the end of winter or early spring. They are characterized by a high and relatively short-term rise in the water level in the river. Correct floods are formed at the beginning of winter and are characterized by significant (but less than when the water level) rise in water levels and a more significant flood duration.
Nagonaya floods (arrivals) wind harnesses of water in the marine mouths of rivers and on windy sections of the coast of the seas, large lakes, reservoirs. Possible at any time of the year. Characterized by the absence of frequency and significant water level rise.
Flooding (floodings), formed during breakthrough dams of water from a reservoir or reservoir, formed during the breakthrough of the structure of the pressure edge (dam, dams, etc.) or with emergency reset of water from the reservoir, as well as during the breakthrough of the natural dam, created by nature when earthquakes, landslides, collaps, movement of glaciers. Characterized by the formation of a breakthrough wave, leading to the flooding of large areas and destruction or damage to objects of objects (buildings, structures, etc.)
Causes of flooding
Long rains.
Long rains are one of the most common causes of flooding. Depending on the terrain relief, the type of soil is created the risk of accumulation of excessive aquatic masses. Water displacement, combining multiple threads create a serious threat to residents and their property.
In cases of prolonged duration, high rain intensity increases water levels in reservoirs (most often rivers). It appears anti-abnormal spills, provokes a large cluster of water in areas with embossed depressions, flooding a large area with water masses.
Melting of snow.
Currently, there is a change in climatic conditions in various localities. A sharp drops of temperature cause a sharp freezing of a large amount of water and also a sharp melting. It becomes the cause of many natural disasters, including floods. In certain areas, for example, in a mountainous area, where snow could be kept and accumulated sufficiently for a long time, due to changes in climatic conditions (sharp warming, seismic activity) begin to melt and shifted, which becomes a source of landslides, timelines and floods.
Wave Tsunami
After lesion, sushi is a few huge tsunami waves, not only numerous sacrifices and destruction remain, but a large amount of water, which for a long time remains on its surface, than causes serious damage.
Tsunami – this is Huge wave. Causes of Tsunami formation
Underwater earthquake (about 85% of all tsunami). With an earthquake, a vertical bottom of the bottom is formed under water: part of the bottom is lowered, and the part is raised. The surface of the water comes to the oscillatory movement vertically, striving to return to the initial level, the average level of the sea, and generates a series of waves. Not every submarine earthquake is accompanied by a tsunami. Tsunamic (that is, the tsunami-generating wave) is usually an earthquake with a shallow-located hearth. The problem of recognition of the tsunamigenicity of the earthquake has not yet been solved, and the warning service is focused on the earthquake magnet. The strongest tsunami is generated in subduction zones.
Landslides. The tsunami of this type arise more often than they were assessed in the twentieth century (about 7% of all tsunami). Often, the earthquake causes a landslide and he also generates a wave. On July 9, 1958, as a result of an earthquake on Alaska, a landslide arose in the lithuania bay. The mass of ice and earth rocks collapsed from a height of 1,100 m. A wave was formed, reached on the opposite shore of the bay of height of more than 500 m. This kind of cases are very rare and, of course, are not considered as a reference. But much more often occurs underwater landslides in rivers delta, which are no less dangerous. The earthquake may be the cause of the landslide and, for example, in Indonesia, where the shelf sedimentation is very large, landslide tsunami is especially dangerous, since it happens regularly, causing local waves with a height of more than 20 meters.
Volcanic eruptions (about 4.99% of all tsunami). Large underwater eruptions have the same effect as an earthquake. With strong volcanic explosions, not only the waves from the explosion are formed, but the water also fills the cavities from the erupted material or even the caldera resulting in a long wave. The classic example is the tsunami formed after Krakatau eruption in 1883. Huge tsunami from Volcano Krakatau was observed in the harbors of the whole world and destroyed 5,000 ships for a total of 5,000 ships, 36,000 people died. Human activity. In our age of atomic energy, a person in his hands appeared to cause concussions, used only to nature. In 1946, the United States made a submarine atomic explosion with a TNTIL equivalent of 20 thousand tons with a depth of 60 m in the marine lagoon. The wave that arose at a distance of 300 m from the explosion rose to a height of 28.6 m, and 6.5 km from the epicenter, it also reached 1.8 m. But for long-range wave propagation, it is necessary to oust or absorb some volume of water, and tsunami from underwater landslides and explosions always carry a local character. If you simultaneously make an explosion of several hydrogen bombs at the ocean day, along a line, then there will be no theoretical obstacles to the occurrence of tsunami, such experiments were carried out, but did not lead to any significant results compared with more accessible types of weapons. Currently, any underwater tests of atomic weapons are prohibited by a series of international treaties.
