TODAY IS OUR ARMY DAY! HAPPY HOLIDAYS TO YOU, MEN. AND, OF COURSE, LADIES, WHO IS INVOLVED!
Therefore, when discussing this topic, it is not at all necessary to talk only about the ancient Romans.
You can just talk about the history of military art, because being a soldier and winning is art
MATERIAL FOR ALL SOLDIERS AND JUST INTERESTED!
Brief historical background
Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, Britain. Roman soldiers were famous all over the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron), brilliant victories. The Roman generals went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean were under the weight of a soldier's boot.
The Roman army at different times had different numbers, the number of legions, and a different structure. With the improvement of the art of war, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.
In Rome, there was general conscription. They began to serve in the army as young men from the age of 17 to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Those who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempted from service. The terms of service have also changed over time.
At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap, they were purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property that was estimated at no less than 100,000 copper aces, the 2nd - at least 75,000 aces, the 3rd - 50,000 aces, the 4th - 25,000 aces, 5 -mu - 11.500 asses. All the poor were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only offspring ( proles). Each property category exhibited a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd - 22; 3rd - 20; 4th - 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, in total 193 centuries. Lightly armed soldiers were used as carts for servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. The proletarians and slaves did not serve, as they were not trusted.
Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from him a salary for food, weapons and equipment.
After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased, and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.
Continuous wars required a lot of soldiers, changes in weapons, formation, training. The army became hired. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).
Organization of the Roman army
After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. all the peoples of Italy fell under the rule of Rome. To keep them in subjection, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the “divide and conquer” law.
And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:
a) legions, in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry attached to them;
b) the Italic allies and allied cavalry (after granting the Italians the rights of citizenship, which joined the legion);
c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.
The main tactical unit was the legion. In the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the line of the legion.
Consul Mark Claudius changed the formation of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.
The legion was divided into maniples (in Latin - a handful), centuria (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.
Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) marched ahead of the legion in the loose side and started a battle. In case of failure, it retreated to the rear and to the flanks of the legion. There were 1,200 of them in total.
Gastats (from the Latin “gasta” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) - 120 people in a maniple. Second line. Triarii (third) - 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The Triarii were the most experienced and experienced fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: "It came to the Triarii."
Each maniple had two centuries. There were 60 people in the Gastat or Principe Century, and there were 30 Triarii in the Century.
The legion was given 300 horsemen, which amounted to 10 turm. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.
At the very beginning of the application of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, thus a break in the battle line was obtained, the maniple from the second line was in a hurry to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line was taken by the maniple from the third line ... During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.
Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve, deciding the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion was waiting for death. Therefore, over time, the Romans moved to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, represented a legion in miniature.
Commanding staff of the Roman army
In tsarist times, the king was the commander. In the days of the republic, consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was elected, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, in contrast to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were assigned to separate units of the army.
Individual legions were commanded by the tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then yielding their place to the second pair, etc. Centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each centurion was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right to be a soldier for wrongdoing. They carried with them a grapevine - a Roman rod, this tool was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus told about one centurion whom the whole army knew under the nickname: "Pass another!" After the reform of Mary, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the Triarii gained great influence. They were invited to the council of war.
As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, timpani, trumpets, horns. The banners were in the form of a spear with a crossbar on which a cloth of one-color material hung. The manipuli, and after the reform of the Maria cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, wild boar ...). If a unit performed a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flag staff; this custom has survived to this day.
The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver eagle or bronze. Under the emperors, it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to induce the soldiers to return it back and scatter the enemies.
The first thing that the soldiers were taught was to follow the badge, the banner. Standard-bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and enjoyed great honor and respect.
According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square cloth laced to a horizontal crossbar, fixed on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.
Until the allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects, chosen from among the Roman citizens.
Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service is a quaestor in charge of fodder and food for the army. He oversaw the delivery of everything needed. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a commander in the modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, bookkeepers, cashiers who gave salaries to soldiers, priests-fortune-tellers, military police officials, spies, trumpeters-signalists.
All signals were given by a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, they sounded a trumpet-futsin. In the cavalry, a special long pipe was used, bent at the end. The signal to gather the troops for the general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander's tent.
Training in the Roman army
The training of the fighters of the Roman manipular legion, first of all, consisted in teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill the gaps in the battle line at the moment of the collision with the enemy, to hasten to merge into a common mass. These maneuvers required more complex training than training a warrior who fought in a phalanx.
The training also consisted in the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.
The emergence of legions, divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his companions, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, reminiscent of the gladiator training system in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained soldiers (trained) could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack from the rear on a huge mass of the enemy, feeling only the cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting the light infantry, and between 300 and 900 horsemen.
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Fig. 3 - Cohort battle formation. |
Discipline
The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely in the power of the commander.
The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as well as failure to comply with the order. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquat, during reconnaissance without the order of the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in the camp with delight. However, the consul condemned him to death. The verdict was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.
Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bunches of rods (fascias, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. The symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was chopped off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem translated into Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were whipped and then executed.
If a soldier fell asleep at the post, he was put on trial, and then stoned to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses, they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced wages, deprived of citizenship, sold into slavery.
But there were also awards. They could be promoted in rank, increase their salary, awarded with land or money, freed from camp work, awarded with insignia: silver and gold chains, brastets. The rewarding was carried out by the commander himself.
The usual awards were medals (phalers) with the image of the face of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen in battle. Crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of the enemy fortress. Crown with two golden noses of ships, - to the soldier who first entered the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to a commander who lifted the siege from a city or fortress or liberated them. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, while at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.
The Triumphant rode in a gilded chariot in a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was pulled by four snow-white horses. Before the chariot, they carried the spoils of war and led the prisoners. Relatives and friends, songwriters, soldiers followed the triumphant. Triumphant songs were played. Every now and then there were shouts of "Io!" and "Triumph!" (“Io!” Corresponds to our “Hurray!”). A slave who stood behind the triumphant in a chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and so that he would not be arrogant.
For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, in love with him, following him, made fun of and laughed at his bald head.
Roman camp
The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, was dragging the fortress. As soon as a halt was made, the construction of the camp began immediately. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was thrown unfinished. Even broken for a short time, it differed from the one-day one by more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in the camp for the winter. Such a camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some of the Roman tagges. From the Roman camps, Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew up ... Cities, in the end of which there is "... chester" or "... castra", arose on the site of the Roman camps. "Castrum" - camp.
The site for the camp was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. There should be water and pasture nearby for transporting cattle, fuel.
The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the place of the praetorium was outlined. It is a square area, the side of which was 50 meters. Here the commander's tents, altars, a tribune for addressing the commander's soldiers were set up; here the trial and the gathering of the army took place. To the right was the quaestor's tent, to the left - the legates. The tents of the stands were placed on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide passed through the whole camp, the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. There were gates and towers at the ends of the streets. They were equipped with ballistae and catapults (the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile, ballista of the metal nucleus, catapult - arrows). On either side were the tents of the legionnaires in regular rows. From the camp the troops could march without hustle and bustle. Each centuria occupied ten tents, and maniples - twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof and were covered with leather or coarse linen. The area of the tent is from 2.5 to 7 sq. m. The decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the praetorian guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the tents of the legionnaires. This was done so that the enemy could not light the tents. In front of the camp, they set up an obstacle course consisting of several counter-roll lines and obstacles made of pointed stakes, wolf holes, trees with pointed branches and intertwined among themselves, forming an almost impassable obstacle.
Leggings have been worn by Roman legionaries since ancient times. Under the emperors were abolished. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings were of the color of the metal from which they were made, sometimes they were painted.
In the time of Mary, the banners were silver, in the time of the empire, gold. The cloths were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.
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Rice. 7 - Weapon. |
A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. One-edged swords, handles were made of bone, wood, metal.
Pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and a shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly round to round with a cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The spearhead and the rod were made of soft forged iron, up to iron they were made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear biting into the shield pulled him to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg and dragged along the ground, as the tip and the rod were bent.
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Rice. 8 - Scutums (shields). |
Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made of light, well-dried, aspen or poplar boards tightly fitted to each other, covered with linen, and on top with bovine skin. Along the edge, the shields were bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the stripes were laid with a cross through the center of the shield. In the center there was a pointed badge (umbon) - the top of the shield. Legionnaires kept in it (it was removable) a razor, money and other small things. On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal brace, the name of the owner and the number of the century or cohort were written. The leather could be dyed: red or black. The hand was pushed into the belt loop and taken by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.
The helmet is earlier in the center, later on the left. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed the place where the feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head, the Roman helmet had a ring through which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or at the waist, as is the case with the modern helmet.
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Rice. 11 - Pipes. |
Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics, later (after the war with the Gauls) all the legionnaires also began to wear pants. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites might have swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of the clothes could be any, except for purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers in the Roman army appeared after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.
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Fig 12 - Centurion. |
The centurions had silvered helmets, had no shields, and wore a sword on the right side. They had leggings and, as a distinctive mark on their armor, on their chests had an image of a vine rolled into a ring. At the time of the manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of the centuri, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all the legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and high commanders were allowed to wear purple cloaks.
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Rice. 17 - Roman horseman. |
Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know the stepladders. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not forged. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.
References
1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 volumes, Moscow, 1987
2. On the seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. Herman, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.
3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.
4. Spartacus. Rafaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.
5. Flags of the states of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.
6. History of Ancient Rome, edited by V.I. Kuzishchino
Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of about the same age and physique were selected, who appeared in front of the stands. He was the first to choose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier to select the tribune of the second legion, and the first legion took the last. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that elsewhere Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionaries. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate figures.
The recruitment was coming to an end, and the newcomers took the oath. The tribunes chose one person who was to step forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also took a step forward and vowed to do as he did ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of assembly for each legion so that all were distributed among their detachments.
While recruits were being recruited, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and sworn in, just as they did in Rome. They then appointed a commander and treasurer and gave orders to advance.
Upon arrival at the designated place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, consisting of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and the poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred of them. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry — 1,200 gastats; those in full bloom became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle formation - the triarii (they were also called saws). There were 600 of them, and no matter how large the legion was, there were always six hundred Triarii. The number of people in other units could have increased proportionally.
From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion elected by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. The centurions were chosen based on their tenacity and courage. Each centurion appointed an assistant (optio) for himself. Polybius calls them "hurricane", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.
The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (gastats, principles and triarii) into ten manipulative detachments, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the Triarii was commanded by primipil, senior centurion.
The oldest armies in the world.
The first were the Sumerians ... This mysterious people appeared in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. The Sumerians gave mankind many truly great discoveries: the state, fortified cities, writing, schools, codes of law, the wheel, irrigation agriculture - this is not a complete list of Sumerian innovations. The Sumerian city-states were located close to each other (at a distance of 30-40 km), and therefore territorial and property disputes inevitably arose between them. The city governments were forced to acquire armies. Interstate wars and armies are also an invention of the Sumerians. The oldest military conflicts known to historians occurred in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. between the Sumerian city-states of Kish and Uruk.
Very little is known about the weapons of the Sumerian warriors of that time. The epic text about the war between Kish and Uruk mentions battle axes, of course made of copper. Undoubtedly, spears were used, the main weapon of the warriors of Mesopotamia, as well as slingers (archaeologists have found cores for the sling of the Uruk period). Apparently, soon after the war with Kish, the ruler of Uruk surrounded his city with colossal fortress walls, the remains of which were recently discovered by archaeologists.
Much more information about the weapons and organization of the Sumerian army has survived from the next, so-called early Dynastic period (approximately 3000-2350 BC). At this time, one after another, the Sumerian cities of Ur, Lagash, Umma, Nippur, and others rose and flourished. The role and strength of the state apparatus sharply increased. The first standing armies appeared, at first very small, only a few hundred soldiers each.
Historians judge their weapons, device, and even combat tactics mainly from the few images that have come down to us, the main ones of which are the famous standard from Ur and the Stele of vultures.
The Sumerian army of the early Dynastic period consisted of three types of troops: heavy and light infantry and chariots. The main force of the army was heavy infantry, and the main offensive weapon was spears with copper tips. In pre-Sumerian times, stone or copper points were inserted into a wooden shaft with a wedge and secured with straps or ropes. Such an attachment quickly weakened and loosened, moreover, the shaft split and the tip could fall out at the most inopportune moment. The Sumerians improved the method of attaching the tip: they made several holes in its narrow base and fastened it to the shaft with copper pins or rivets.
The heavy infantry went on the attack in a tightly closed formation. Ahead such a phalanx was covered by warriors with large rectangular shields. Probably, the shields were made of wood, covered with leather and additionally reinforced with copper plates. The phalanx of Lagash, depicted on the Stele of vultures, consisted of six rows of spear warriors in copper helmets, 9 people in a row, that is, a total of 54 warriors.
In the wars of the early Dynastic period, light infantry, armed with darts and clubs (and later with battle axes), apparently did not play a large role. The highest achievement of Sumerian military technology and the main means, if not extermination, then at least intimidation of the enemy, were undoubtedly the world's first war chariots. These were rather clumsy wooden carts on four wheels with a high protective wall at the front, to which dart quivers were attached. A couple of donkeys were harnessed to the chariot (the horse had not yet been domesticated), and two stood in the cart: a driver and a warrior who fought with a long spear and threw javelins. The fact is that the wheels of the Sumerian combat carts were solid wooden circles, without spokes and a rim, and the scythes were fixed motionless. Therefore, the left and right wheels rotated at the same speed, and when cornering, one of them always skidded and buried itself in the ground. Although this military technique did not differ in maneuverability and speed, even such clumsy carts terrified enemies.
Historians believe that in combat conditions the most ancient army could, maintaining order, move in only one direction - forward. The Sumerians still did not know how to ambush or enter from the flanks. Or maybe they just considered such tricks unworthy. Therefore, the formation was covered with shields only in front.
The Sumerian warriors were armed with copper (and later bronze) daggers and axes. In the middle of the III millennium BC. BC, shortly after the invention of metal armor (cloaks with copper plates), battle axes changed markedly: their blades became narrower and longer to cut through scale armor. Such axes, they are sometimes called "crow's beaks", were the most effective weapons in close combat, when the phalanx formation was destroyed and it became impossible to use spears. It is believed that the honor of inventing combat swords also belongs to the Sumerians. The first samples of this weapon were forged no later than the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The oldest swords had a rather strange curved shape, indicating that their ancestor was most likely a peasant sickle. Such sickle-shaped swords at the beginning, apparently, were only in service with the nobility and were used mainly for the execution of the Prisoners.
The army of a new type appeared during the reign of Sargon the Ancient in 2261. BC BC). The main force was the mobile light infantry, which operated in loose formation and included detachments of archers, spearmen and warriors with battle axes. Heavy, slow phalanxes and clumsy chariots were powerless against the rapid attacks of Sargon's light infantry, which flanked the enemy and showered him with clouds of arrows. Sargon, who became the first emperor in the world, united the Northern and Southern Mesopotamia under his rule, and made the new city of Akkad the capital. He created the largest regular army at that time. Cuneiform chronicles, as something unheard of, report the size of his permanent army: 5400 soldiers who always eat and sleep with their king!
Times have changed, and now Mesopotamia was threatened by hordes of steppe nomads, their martial art advanced so much that the archaic Sumerian phalanxes could not ensure the safety of the city. Sargon ruled the country for 55 years and fought 34 major battles. After his death, the Akkadian Empire did not last long, it was captured by the nomadic Kutians.
On the ruins of the Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom at the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. formed two great powers - Babylon in the south and Assyria in the north. For one and a half millennia, they challenged each other's dominion over Mesopotamia, and sometimes over the entire Middle East. In the conditions of constant single combat, military science developed rapidly. Even at the turn of the III and II millennia BC. e. in Mesopotamia, there was a final transition from copper weapons to bronze (bronze was most likely invented by the Sumerians), and by the end of the II millennium iron weapons began to spread (at first, only offensive; defenses continued to be made of bronze for a long time). At the beginning of the II millennium BC. e. the inhabitants of Mesopotamia finally managed to tame horses, and they immediately began to be used in military affairs. Chariots, drawn by a pair, three or four horses, represented a much more formidable force than the Sumerian war carts. The chariots themselves changed radically: they were now made not four-wheeled, but two-wheeled; wheels (no longer solid, but with spokes and a rim) were attached to the axle movably, which significantly increased speed and maneuverability. The crew of the Assyrian war chariot consisted of four people: a charioteer, an archer and two shield-bearers.
At the end of the II millennium BC. e. The Assyrians mastered horseback riding and were the first to introduce cavalry armed with bows and javelins into the troops. The stepladders did not yet know, and at first it was difficult for the riders to control both the horse and the weapon at the same time. The first cavalry needed the help of the infantry: the shield-bearers held the horses by the bridle and covered the horsemen with shields while they fired or threw javelins. A little later, the Assyrian horsemen learned to skillfully ride a horse with the help of their legs, which made it possible for them to do without the support of the infantry. The cavalry was indispensable for the pursuit of defeated enemies.
In the first third of the 1st millennium BC. e., in the period of the highest prosperity of Assyria, the Assyrian army was undoubtedly the strongest in the world in terms of numbers, and in armament, and in organization, and in military discipline. The army of Shalmaneser III in 845 BC e. numbered 120,000 soldiers - an unprecedented figure for that time. Assyria's military successes were facilitated by numerous innovations, such as cavalry, siege vehicles, and iron weapons. However, all these innovations were quickly adopted by their neighbors, including the Babylonians, although, unlike their northern neighbors, they did not introduce anything new into military science.
The crescent swords of the Assyrians were gradually replaced by shorter - and straight, borrowed from Western peoples - the Hittites and Achaeans
The Assyrian king Tiglath-palasar III (744-727 BC) carried out a military reform, as a result of which the power of the Assyrian army reached its maximum. The basis of the army was the tsarist regiment - a standing army, which consisted of full tsarist support and was formed by recruiting (including from the poorest strata of the population). The army included seven main types of troops. The elite troops are chariots recruited from the nobility. The chariot could accommodate from two to four people, one drove the horses, and the rest fired bows, threw javelins, fought with spears or held shields, blocking themselves and their comrades. For the first time, the cavalry became a truly formidable striking force. The riders were dressed in bronze scale armor and were armed not only with bows, but also with spears, axes, and swords. Heavy infantry in armor and pointed helmets fought with spears and short swords. Light infantry — archers, slingers, and javelin throwers — fought without armor and often without helmets; the warriors were protected by special shield-bearers, who shielded the shooters with high shields. The army also had
siege troops, reconnaissance and convoy.
The heavy infantry usually lined up in three lines. The first row of spearmen was covered with huge, human-sized, trapezoidal shields, and the second and third rows were covered with lighter and more comfortable round shields. Light infantry could act independently of other types of troops, then forming a single formation to repel the attacks of enemy infantry and chariots, and then scattering. The first row consisted of shield-bearers (they could also throw darts), archers stood behind them in three rows, and slingers behind them, for whose actions a lot of free space was required. The slingers fired over the heads of their comrades.
A powerful, combat-ready army allowed the Assyrian kings to extend their power to the whole of Western Asia. However, at the end of the 7th century. BC e. the greatest empire of the ancient world collapsed under the blows of numerous enemies - the Babylonians and the Medes.
Weapons used for ritual purposes were called sacred or priestly. In ancient times, such a weapon was considered as a manifestation of the deity, its symbolic essence. The sacred weapon was considered the body of the deity, and the sacraments performed with its help reflected the mystical life of the deity.
Cults associated with sacred weapons varied, but all of them were united by the difference between sacred weapons and military ones, as well as the need to initiate and pass the inauguration of its carriers. Almost every nation had a ritual weapon, but not always a sacred one. It was distinguished by the fact that something carried a divine particle, or it fell from the gods to people.
Each sacred weapon had its own destiny associated with the priest-carrier, with his life and death, and with the revival of the cult. Violation of cult rituals entailed a violation of the mystical body of the deity, its metaphysical embodiment, and could lead to unpredictable consequences.
The making of sacred weapons was accompanied by a special ceremony. Moreover, each cult had its own methods of uniting the wearer with the weapon. For example, when forging a blade for the cults of cats (lions, leopards, panthers, etc.), the priest's blood was forged into it from a cut on the hand, and the cut was cauterized with a red-hot blade. Thus, the blood brotherhood of the weapon and the priest was achieved, since, according to legends, the weapon itself was originally forged from the blood of a god. At the "death" of the sacred blade (the blade is broken), the wearer took a piece of the blade into his chest, giving the blade the opportunity to be reborn in brotherhood with a new priest. It was believed that when reforged, the souls of its bearers entered the sacred sword in order to be reborn in the blade again and again.
In the "royal" burial of Ur, dating back to the III millennium BC. BC, along with other precious objects, a magnificent dagger was discovered. It is difficult to say whether this was the burial of a Lugal (leader), someone from the Ensi (High Priests) or Even (Builder Priest), but there is no doubt that the dagger was a cult one, because it is made of gold and lapis lazuli.
There was no gold of its own in Sumer, so the precious metal was dedicated only to the gods, and only for the gods and temples products were made from it. The handle of the dagger is made of lapis lazuli - a stone “pleasing to the deities” and having a symbolic and sacred meaning.
The god of the moon Nanna was worshiped as the supreme deity in Ur. His cult was associated with the movement of the moon across the starry sky: at night on his barque the deity traveled across the sky, and during the day - across the land of his ancestors. The priests and priestesses of the lunar deity predicted and calculated lunar eclipses, which was very important, because the ebb and flow that influenced commercial shipping depended on the phases of the moon.
Nanna was considered the lord of oracles, and his priests divined for the whole of Sumer on the liver, heart, lungs and other entrails of sacrificial animals. For divination and feeding of the deity and priests, animals were always cut with a sacred dagger. The complex ritual was accompanied by the smoking of incense, the libation of sacrificial water, oil, beer, wine. To the sounds of lyres, harps, cymbals and tambourines, prayers were raised for the welfare of the donor. The priests who knew the ritual knew what dishes and drinks were pleasing to the gods, what could be considered "clean" and what was "unclean." The more generous the gifts were, the more solemn the ceremony became.
In the ritual of the "sacred marriage" held during the vernal equinox, Lugal's wife, who bore the title "en", stabbed a sacrificial bull - a yak dedicated to the moon Nunn - with a sacred golden dagger, and Lugal predicted from his entrails. The blood of the sacrificial bull once again watered Nunn's garden.
By the XXVI century BC. e. the Semitic shepherd tribes of the Chaldeans came to Sumer.
The "sacred marriage" ritual was no longer performed. The rites were not performed, and the gods left Sumer. Taking sacred objects to the land of their ancestors, the priests completed their service to the cult on this land. Their time is gone. The sacred weapons were buried together with their servants.
Archaeological data indicate that in the III and II millennia BC. cattle breeding has become an important branch of production. Livestock products became more and more diverse. The development of horse breeding... In Mesopotamia, archaeologists found remains during excavations carriages on wheels, into which the ox was harnessed. This wagon has been found to date back to the 3rd millennium BC.
In the II millennium BC. the horse became the draft force, which, first of all, began to be used as a vehicle. Providing troops appears with the birth of armies in Ancient Egypt and other countries of the Ancient East
With the emergence of a harmonious organization of troops, the need for their constant supplies while hiking. At this time, and begins to emerge wagon train, in which stocks of food and water are created. The main campaigns of the Egyptian army of various periods were carried out in a mountainous desert area, in a hot climate. In these conditions, it was of great importance providing warriors with water... Moreover, the area had a limited number of fresh water reservoirs and wells.
During the Middle Kingdom, the organization of the army was improved. The divisions now had a certain number: 6, 40, 60, 100, 400, 600 soldiers. The detachments numbered 2, 3, 10 thousand soldiers. Units of uniformly armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers, who had a formation order for movement; moved in a column in four rows along the front and ten rows deep.
There is evidence of rewarding ordinary soldiers for seniority by allocating small plots of land to them. Bosses were promoted for their merits, received land, livestock, slaves, or were awarded " gold praise"(Like an order) and decorated with military weapons.
Pharaohs and their commanders undertook numerous campaigns to different countries with the aim of plundering them. When organizing trips, much attention was paid to supply.
Already in the campaigns of the Egyptians, 1,000 years before the New Era, a pack train was used for the food of the troops. So, for example, in one inscription we read: “I went with troops of 3000 people ... for each there were two vessels of water and 20 loaves of bread for each day. The donkeys were loaded with sandals. " On the march, this detachment had to dig 20 wells to provide themselves with water.
The art of war acquired new forms during the New Kingdom. The Egyptian army took over the chariot from other tribes and peoples as a means of armed struggle. The troop supply system has changed and become more complex. Procurement troops were in charge of a special body. Products were given out from warehouses according to certain norms. There were special workshops for the manufacture and repair of weapons.
During the campaign and after the victorious battle of Megido, and then the capture of this city, the Pharaoh's officials appreciated the captured trophies. 924 chariots, 2238 horses, 200 sets of weapons were captured. The Egyptian army was reaping the harvest in the valley of Ezraelon. As a prey, the pharaoh and his entourage got 2,000 head of cattle and 22,500 head of small livestock... The trophy list shows that the Egyptians were supplied with local funds.
Further victorious campaigns of the Egyptians during this period were in the nature of a gradual advance inland in the Asian territory of the Middle East. To ensure the advancement deep into enemy territory, the Egyptians expanded their bases, showing concern for rear.
In ancient China, during the period of the birth of the state system for the recruitment and maintenance of troops, the division of the territory was carried out. The administrative and economic unit was the “neighborhood community”, which consisted of eight households. She received land, for which she was obliged to perform various duties: to supply soldiers, horses and oxen, to deliver food and fodder. One of the eight households provided a warrior, the other seven performed other duties.
Thus, the 100-thousandth army contained 700 thousand peasant households. The army was recruited from peasants, and the peasants supported it.
Four "neighboring communities" made up a village, four villages - a village, four villages - a volost. During the war, the parish had to give 75 soldiers, one war chariot, four horses and sixteen oxen... These obligations ruined the peasants.
With the development of centralized states in the form of eastern despots, the system of supplying troops also changed, this was associated with the waging of wars against the steppe nomads in the north. Army supply presented the greatest difficulties. In wars with nomads, it was impossible to rely on local funds, it was necessary to organize the delivery of food. By means of transport there were oxen that not only fettered the army with their slow movement, but also created additional difficulties, since it was necessary to take care of the forage.
Supply problems and climatic conditions in the steppes of Mongolia and Xinjiang limited the duration of campaigns to one hundred days a year. Despite the highly developed system of rivers and canals, water transportation for military purposes was still not widely used.
An uninterrupted supply of troops is critical. If not wagon train, provisions, reserves, the army dies. A smart commander, according to Sun Tzu, tries to feed himself at the expense of the enemy.
The most ancient treatise on the art of war that has come down to our time belongs to Sun Tzu. He was either a military leader of the Ancient Chinese state, or an adviser to the king (emperor). In the treatise, he examines the organization of the army for calculating the means necessary for arming and supplying the army. The army should have a sufficient number of light and heavy chariots, horses and oxen, helmets, shells, bows and arrows, spears, lances, large and small shields. You should replenish your army, especially with war chariots, at the expense of trophies. Sun Tzu recommended that the prisoners be treated well and taken care of; this made it possible to include prisoners in the Chinese army.
V Ancient Greece troops formed separate policies. At the same time, there were some common features of the support of the armies. Most clearly reflected in the example of the army of Ancient Sparta. The ancient Greeks at first did not have wagon train, but behind the hoplite was a servant carrying supplies. All Spartans enrolled in the army were required to appear on duty with their weapons and food.
The Greek soldiers acquired weapons and equipment at their own expense. During the Peloponnesian War, the warrior was paid 4 obols (of which 2 obols were for food), the commander was twice as much, the rider three times, and the senior commanders four times.
After the Peloponnesian War, light infantry appeared in the armies of Ancient Greece, which was armed with less heavy, and therefore cheaper, weapons. Lightly armed warriors, unlike hoplites, did not have servants. It was at this time that the need arose to create centralized stocks transported by the army.
With the growth of the combat importance of light infantry, its number continuously increased, but the sources of manning were limited. The way out of this situation was the formation of light and medium infantry from mercenaries. The Greeks already had extensive experience of serving as mercenaries of Eastern despotism (Egypt, Persia, etc.). The contingents for this purpose were free farmers and artisans, ravaged by wars and debt bondage. Paying for service gave them the opportunity to acquire weapons, equipment and food.
400 years before our era, the Greeks have packtrain, and during the famous retreat of 10 thousand Greeks, there were already 400 carts in a pair of oxen harness. In the flat terrain, the Greeks moved, lining up in a square (quadrangle), in the center of which they walked carts.
Carts of the Hellenic period were further developed during the conquest campaigns of Alexander the Great (Macedonian). An important issue in the preparation of the campaign was the organization of the military rear of the Macedonian army. The wagon train followed directly behind the army, and at stops was located in a fortified camp and was carefully guarded. V wagon train there were military equipment, siege machines and means of assault, artisans with their own tools for the production of various works, representatives of Greek science to study new countries, merchants. With the army of Alexander the Great in 37 thousand people, there were about 2.5 thousand carts.
In the wagon train for the army, they often carried booty, including prisoners. As a result, the military rear of the army turned out to be cumbersome and often impeded the movement of the army.
During the campaigns deep into the territory of Persia, the Macedonian army remained ready for battle: for the purpose of reconnaissance of the enemy forces, a detachment of heavily armed horsemen and lightly armed infantrymen moved in front; behind the vanguard were the main forces: in the center a double phalanx of hoplites, on its flanks - cavalry; the main force was followed by a wagon train.
To strengthen their position in Asia Minor, the Macedonians put their commanders at the head of the conquered provinces, who were obliged to create warehouses with supplies of food, weapons and equipment; the Macedonian garrisons were also subordinate to these commanders;
During the campaign in Asia (3.5 years), the Macedonian army covered over 8 thousand kilometers. To ensure the rear of the army, the administration of the conquered regions was organized, and Macedonian garrisons were located in the large centers located on the main communications. For the storage of weapons and equipment, special warehouses... Methods for preserving food were invented. Gardens and orchards were set up within the city to supply the troops and the population with fruits and vegetables during the siege.
Finally, it should be noted organization and support of the rear... Particular attention was paid to the issue of security of the main communication linking the Macedonian army with the main base. The intermediate bases played an important role in the course of the war; which were created in the conquered territory. The organization of warehouses in fortified points with strong garrisons that made up the closest strategic reserve, the organization of military command with the task of replenishing the army and warehouses at the expense of the local population - these are the most important measures that ensured the creation of intermediate bases. The security of communication was achieved by the defeat of the enemy's manpower, as well as by the disorganization and displacement of his fleet from the eastern Mediterranean.
The Romans originally dispensed with wagon train... The Roman legionnaire received about 800 g of grain per day, which he grinded in a hand mill and prepared himself a stew of flour. Subsequently, they began to bake flat cakes, and then they began to use crackers. Drinking water served with vinegar. The chief relied on the diet of a legionnaire. When going on a campaign, they were given food for 15, and sometimes for 30 days. The legionary had to carry this reserve himself. Legionnaires were allowed to live off local funds, i.e. organized robbery was legalized. Part of the salary was withheld for food and uniforms, part was handed out.
In the II century. BC. the Romans have packtrain including 250 mules per legion (4,000 people). Later introduced and wheeled train.
In this way, carts in the armies of the belligerent states of the ancient world appear very early. However, fragmentary information has come down to our time about their formation and use. Initially, as a separate organization during the campaign of the troops, wagon train was absent. The warriors carried the stocks of property and food on themselves, or there was a servant (assistant) with the warrior. In the future, there appear pack carts replaced by wheeled carts.
For carts... Various animals were used as draft force: horses, oxen and camels. It can be assumed that in some campaigns elephants could be used to carry heavy loads, but there is no such obvious information.
Perhaps wars and battles originate from the creation of the world. Some troops died due to insufficient training, others developed entire strategies. A lot of historical evidence has come down to this day about special soldiers of antiquity who fought for ten. Now such troops are called elite.
Until the 16th century, Janissaries were forbidden to marry and acquire their own home. In the 17th century, the military elite suddenly realized their power, and the sultan had to be afraid of his "defenders". Janissaries were engaged in trade with might and main, tied the knot and participated in palace intrigues. In 1826, the Janissaries were abolished as a guard. When they tried to rebel, their barracks were shot.
The warriors of Ancient Russia were also not timid. The history of their battles was imbued with the artist Oleg Fedorov. He created the series
