To understand the complex metabolic processes of microorganisms, it is necessary to consider the chemical composition of the microbial cell and the arsenal of enzymes that it has.
The chemical composition of microbial cells.
The chemical composition of microbial cells is the same as that of higher plants. They contain 75-85% water and 15-25% dry matter of the total mass of the cell.
Water is a necessary component of the cell - chemical processes take place in it, minerals are dissolved and complex organic substances - proteins, carbohydrates, fats - are broken down. Proteins and nucleic acids are most important in cell multiplication and growth. Carbohydrates are found in significant quantities in yeast and fungal cells. These are polysaccharides - glycogen, dextrin, glucose. There are few carbohydrates in bacterial cells.
Fats and fat-like substances (lipids) are found mainly in the surface layer of the cytoplasm. Lipids account for an average of 3-7% of the dry matter of the cell (in tubercle bacillus - 20-40%, Endomyces fungi - 50-60%).
Mineral substances are contained in the cells of microorganisms in small quantities (only 3-10%), but their role is great - they affect the rate and direction of chemical reactions. The most important of them are potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, etc. The content of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and minerals in cells depends on the type of microorganism and the conditions of its existence.
Microbial cell enzymes.
Enzymes are complex organic substances that catalyze chemical reactions. Cells produce (produce) them for the implementation of physiological processes. A cell can contain many enzymes (in the Aspergillus fungus, for example, about 50), due to which various chemical reactions can occur simultaneously. The most common enzymes produced by microorganisms are carbohydrases and proteases.
Carbohydrases - break down starch, fiber and other polysaccharides with the participation of water. These include amylases (breaks down starch to simple carbohydrates), maltase (breaks down the carbohydrate maltose), lipase (hydrolyzes fats and oils to form fatty acids). Most microorganisms contain these enzymes.
Proteases catalyze the degradation of proteins and polypeptides. These enzymes are produced by putrefactive bacteria, molds, actinomycetes.
Each enzyme has a specific action, that is, it can only cleave certain compounds. In addition, there are cardinal points for the action of each enzyme with respect to temperature, pH, and other conditions.
Metabolism.
Every living cell needs a constant flow of energy - it receives this energy in the process of metabolism. Metabolism (metabolism) refers to the totality of all chemical reactions occurring in the cell during its life.
Metabolism is carried out in two main directions.
One of them is building exchange. It is necessary for a living cell for biosynthetic activity, that is, for building a cell, replacing worn-out parts, growth and reproduction. The cell receives the necessary building material in the form of food coming from outside. Nutrients enter the microbial cell in two ways. The first is osmosis (diffusion) of nutrients from the external environment, where their concentration is higher than in the cell. The driving force in this case is the difference in osmotic pressures between the cell and the external environment. The second way is the active transfer of nutrients into the cell using special enzymes. In both cases, nutrients penetrate the cell membrane into the cytoplasm of the cell. The nutritional process is the most important physiological function of the microbial cell. The essence of the nutrition process is that under the action of cell enzymes, high molecular weight organic compounds are split into low molecular weight: sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and from them substances of the microorganism cell itself are synthesized: cytoplasm, cell wall, nucleic acids, etc.
In addition to nutrients for building biosynthetic activity, the cell needs energy. Therefore, the second side of the metabolism of microorganisms is energy metabolism, i.e., providing the cell with energy. Microorganisms obtain energy by oxidizing organic substances (carbohydrates, fats and other energy materials) in the process of respiration - a very important physiological function. In different organisms, the respiration process proceeds in different ways, depending on their relationship to oxygen. Thus, aerobes use gaseous oxygen and obtain energy through the oxidation of organic matter (respiration). This is possible due to the presence of certain enzymes in the cells of aerobes - cytochromes. In anaerobes, these enzymes are absent and the process of obtaining energy takes place without the participation of oxygen. In relation to oxygen, anaerobes are divided into three groups. Strict anaerobes (for example, butyric acid bacteria) generally cannot live in the presence of oxygen. They receive energy by conjugated oxidation - reduction of the substrate (for example, fermentation processes). Facultative anaerobes (not strict) in the presence of oxygen use it for oxidative processes (for respiration), and in its absence, they receive energy without the participation of oxygen (yeast).
The oxidative processes of anaerobes consist in the removal of hydrogen from the oxidized compound (dehydrogenation). Hydrogen binds to other substances (hydrogen acceptors). This process of oxygen-free breathing is called fermentation. The energetic material for fermentation is substances with a large supply of energy.
Thus, nutrients are consumed by the cell in two directions: for the synthesis of body substances and for providing the body with energy. The processes of nutrition and respiration are closely related and are carried out by the cell at the same time. They provide all the vital functions of the cell. The metabolic products formed in this process are released from the cell into the external environment. Metabolism is shown in diagram 1 below.
Scheme 1. Metabolism in microorganisms.
According to the type of nutrition, microbes are divided into two groups: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs- microorganisms that synthesize the substances of their body from inorganic elements. The paths for this synthesis can be different. Some microorganisms, for example, purple sulfur bacteria, like green plants, use photosynthesis, but other substances play the role of chlorophyll in them. Other energy for these synthetic processes is obtained through redox reactions. In this case, inorganic substances serve as electron donors, and carbon dioxide is the source of carbon.
Heterotrophs- these are microorganisms that need ready-made organic compounds, using carbohydrates, alcohols and organic acids as carbon sources, and proteins and their decomposition products as nitrogen sources. The vast majority of bacteria, yeasts and molds are heterotrophs.
Metabolism(metabolism) of bacteria is aggregate two interconnected opposing processes of catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism(dissimilation) - decay of substances in the process of enzymatic reactions and the accumulation of the energy released during this in ATP molecules.
Anabolism(assimilation) - synthesis of substances with energy consumption.
Features of metabolism in bacteria are that:
Its intensity has enough high level, which is possibly due to a much larger ratio of surface to unit mass than that of multicellular organisms;
Processes dissimilation prevail over processes assimilation;
substrate spectrum the substances consumed by bacteria are very wide - from carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitrites, nitrates to organic compounds, including anthropogenic substances - environmental pollutants (thereby ensuring its self-purification processes);
Bacteria have very a wide range of different enzymes- it also contributes to the high intensity of metabolic processes and the breadth of the substrate spectrum.
Bacterial enzymesby localization are divided into 2 groups:
exozymes- bacterial enzymes released into the external environment and acting on the substrate outside the cell (for example, proteases, polysaccharides, oligosaccharidases);
endozymes- bacterial enzymes acting on substrates inside the cell (for example, enzymes that break down amino acids, monosaccharides, synthetases).
Enzyme synthesis genetically determined, but regulation their synthesis is through direct and feedback, that is, for some it is repressed, and for others it is induced by the substrate. Enzymes, the synthesis of which depends on the availability of an appropriate substrate in the environment (for example, beta-galactosidase, beta-lactamase) are called inducible .
Another group of enzymes whose synthesis does not depend on the presence of a substrate in an environment called constitutive (for example, glycolysis enzymes). Their synthesis always takes place, and they are always contained in microbial cells in certain concentrations.
Study the metabolism of bacteria using physicochemical and biochemical methods research in the process of culturing bacteria under certain conditions on special nutrient media containing one or another compound as a substrate for transformation. This approach makes it possible to judge the metabolism by a more detailed study of the processes of various types of metabolism (proteins, carbohydrates) in microorganisms.
Question 5. Features of protein and carbohydrate metabolism in bacteria
Protein metabolism
Protein metabolism in bacteria - this, on the one hand, - the process of synthesis of own amino acids and proteins by assimilating the necessary components from the external environment, and on the other, - extracellular protein breakdown under the influence of various enzymes. If protein breakdown occurs under anaerobic conditions, then this process is called putrefaction and if it goes in aerobic conditions - smoldering.
In the presence of proteases in bacteria, proteins are cleaved by them to intermediate decay products - peptones, and in the presence of peptidases in bacteria, peptones are cleaved by them to amino acids and their decay products (ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, indole). Proteolytic(the ability to break down proteins) and peptolytic(the ability to break down peptones) properties are not expressed in all bacteria, therefore, their study in conjunction with other enzymatic properties helps to identify bacteria.
Carbohydrate metabolism
Carbohydrate metabolism in bacteria it is also twofold - it is the process of synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates... Breakdown of carbohydrates by bacteria (saccharolytic properties) under aerobic conditions with the formation of carbon dioxide and water is called burning , a split by them carbohydrates under anaerobic conditions - fermentation.
Depending on the nature of the end products of the decomposition of carbohydrates in anaerobic conditions, fermentation is distinguished:
Alcohol,
Lactic acid,
Propionic acid,
Formic acid,
Butyric acid,
Acetic acid.
Molecular oxygen does not participate in fermentation processes. Most fermenting bacteria are obligate anaerobes... However, some of them are - facultative anaerobes, are able to carry out the fermentation process in the presence of oxygen, but without its participation. Moreover, this oxygen inhibits the fermentation process. And it is replaced by combustion (breathing - the ultimate acceptor of hydrogen - oxygen). This effect was named the Pasteur effect and is one of classic examples of the change in metabolism in bacteria depending on environmental conditions.
Metabolism (from the Greek metabole - change, transformation) is understood as a set of biochemical reactions and transformations of substances occurring in a microbial cell, aimed at obtaining energy and further using it for the synthesis of organic substances.
The term "metabolism" combines two interrelated but opposite processes - anabolism and catabolism. They are inherent in all living things and are the main features of living things.
Anabolism(nutrition; assimilation; constructive, or building, metabolism; metabolism) is reduced to assimilation, i.e., to the use of nutrients by microorganisms from the external environment for the biosynthesis of components (substances) of their own body. This is achieved more often by reducing endothermic reactions, for the flow of which energy is required.
Catabolism(respiration, dissimilation, biological oxidation) is characterized by the splitting (oxidation) of complex organic substances to simpler products with the release of the energy contained in them, which is used by microorganisms for the synthesis of substances in a given cell. This exchange is also called energy exchange.
In most cases, the same substance is used in both assimilation and dissimilation. The exception is carbohydrates, which undergo breakdown and do not take part in constructive metabolism.
Metabolism in microorganisms is characterized by intensive consumption of nutrients. So, under favorable conditions during the day, one bacterial cell assimilates substances 30-40 times more than its mass.
Various chemicals are involved in the metabolism. Depending on this, protein, carbohydrate, lipid and water-salt metabolism are distinguished.
Protein metabolism. The breakdown of protein initially occurs to peptonosis under the action of exoprotease enzymes. Subsequently, peptones under the influence of endoproteases are broken down to amino acids, which enter the cell. Here, amino acids can undergo deamination and decarboxylation.
As a result of deamination, ammonia, keto acids or hydroxy acids, alcohol and other substances are formed.
Decarboxylation of amino acids occurs during the development of putrefactive bacteria with the formation of toxic products of "cadaveric poisons". When decarboxylating histidine, histamine is formed, ornithine - putrescine, lysine - cadaverine, tyrosine - tyramine. Some microbes produce the enzyme tryptophanase, under the influence of which the amino acid tryptophan breaks down to form indole. The presence of indole formation is used in the identification of microorganisms.
Along with the reactions of protein cleavage, the processes of their synthesis also take place. Bacteria use amino acids to build proteins. Bacterial cells satisfy their needs for amino acids in two ways: some microorganisms obtain amino acids by breaking down protein, while others synthesize them from simple nitrogen compounds. An important property of microbes is the ability to synthesize essential amino acids (methionine, tryptophan, lysine). Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosomes of the cell.
Protein metabolism is closely related to carbohydrate metabolism. For the construction of protein compounds, pyruvic acid is used, and dicarboxylic acids are active intermediaries in the biosynthesis of amino acids.
Carbohydrate metabolism. Carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes to form glucose and maltose. Under the influence of the enzymes maltase, sucrase, lactase, disaccharides that enter the bacterial cell undergo hydrolysis and breakdown into monosaccharides, which are then fermented with a break in the chain of carbohydrate molecules and the release of a significant amount of energy.
The breakdown of carbohydrates by microbes is accompanied by the formation of organic acids, which can decompose to the final products - CCb and H2O.
The synthesis of carbohydrates in microorganisms occurs photo- and chemosynthetically. In photosynthesis, green and purple bacteria containing chlorophyll-type pigments synthesize glucose from the carbon dioxide in the air. In this case, the flow of non-thermal synthesis reactions requires the energy of light.
The process of photosynthesis in bacteria (prokaryotes) is different from photosynthesis in green plants (eukaryotes). In plants, during photolysis, water serves as a hydrogen donor, as a result of which molecular oxygen is released.
In prokaryotes, with the exception of blue-green algae, hydrogen donors are H2S, H2, and other mineral and organic compounds; therefore, oxygen is not formed as a result of the photosynthesis reaction. The main pigment of photosynthesis in bacteria is bacteriochlorophyll, in green plants - chlorophyll, which is found in chloroplasts, each of which is equivalent to a prokaryotic cell. Bacteria lack chloroplast.
Chemosynthesis is carried out by microorganisms that synthesize carbohydrates from glucose, which is preliminarily formed as a result of saccharolytic reactions, i.e., the breakdown of complex sugars. For chemosynthesis, chemical energy is used, released during the breakdown of adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP), i.e., the energy of chemical reactions.
Lipid metabolism includes the processes of lipid hydrolysis, absorption of fatty acids and monoglycerides, biosynthesis of specific lipids, their breakdown and release of final decay products.
Most types of bacteria metabolize lipids in the form of glycerin, which serves as an energy source. Microorganisms also use it for the synthesis of lipids, which in the form of inclusions are reserve nutrients (nutrient material).
The main processes of lipid metabolism are carried out with the help of lipase and other lipolytic enzymes that are firmly associated with the cellular cytoplasm.
Water-salt metabolism includes the intake and release of water and mineral salts, as well as the transformations that occur with them.
Only a small number of elements of D.I. Mendeleev is required by microorganisms in relatively high concentrations - these are ten main biological elements (macroelements): C, O, H, N, S, P, K, Mg, Ca, Fe. The main components of organic compounds are the first four elements - organogens.
Sulfur is required for the synthesis of the amino acids cysteine and methionine and some enzymes. Phosphorus is part of nucleic acids, phospholipids, teichoic acids, and many nucleotides. The other four elements are metal ions used as cofactors of enzymes, as well as components of metal complexes.
In addition to the listed main elements, microorganisms require ten more microelements: Zn, Mn, Na, CI, Mo, Se, Co, Cu, W, Ni, which are involved in the synthesis of enzymes and activate them.
Microorganisms synthesize proteins, nucleoproteins, glucidolipid-protein complexes, nucleic acids, enzymes, vitamins, etc. from various elements and their compounds.
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Introduction
1. General concepts of metabolism and energy
2. Constructive metabolism
3. The need for prokaryotes in nutrients
3.1 Sources of carbon
3.3 Requirements for Sulfur and Phosphorus Sources
3.4 Necessity of metal ions
3.5 The need for growth factors
4. Types of metabolism of microorganisms
5. Energy metabolism of phototrophs
6. Energy metabolism of chemotrophs using fermentation processes
7. Energy metabolism of chemoorganotrophs using the respiration process
8. Energy metabolism of chemolithoautotrophs
Conclusion
This course work contains basic information about the constructive and energetic metabolism of bacteria. The work is done on 37 sheets. Contains 5 figures and 1 table.
The set of processes of transformation of matter in a living organism, accompanied by its constant renewal, is called metabolism or metabolism.
The most important properties of living organisms are the ability to reproduce themselves and their close relationship with the environment. Any organism can exist only under the condition of a constant influx of nutrients from the external environment and the release of waste products into it.
Nutrients absorbed by the cell are converted into specific cellular components as a result of complex biochemical reactions. The set of biochemical processes of absorption, assimilation of nutrients and the creation of structural elements of the cell at their expense is called constructive metabolism or anabolism. Constructive processes go with the absorption of energy. The energy required for the processes of biosynthesis of other cellular functions, such as movement, osmoregulation, etc., is obtained by the cell through the flow of oxidative reactions, the totality of which is energy metabolism, or catabolism (Fig. 1).
All living organisms can use only chemically bound energy. Each substance has a certain amount of potential energy. The main material carriers are chemical bonds, the rupture or transformation of which leads to the release of energy.
The energy level of chemical bonds is not the same. For some, it has a value of the order of 8-10 kJ. Such connections are called normal. In other bonds, a much higher energy is contained - 25-40 kJ. These are the so-called macroergic connections. Almost all known compounds with such bonds include phosphorus and sulfur atoms involved in the formation of these bonds.
The most important role in the life of the cell is played by adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP). Its molecule includes adenine, ribose and three phosphoric acid residues: (Appendix Fig. 2)
ATP is central to the energy metabolism of the cell. Macroergic bonds in the ATP molecule are very fragile. The hydrolysis of these bonds leads to the release of a significant amount of free energy:
ATP + H20 → ADP + H3P04- 30.56 kJ
Hydrolysis proceeds with the participation of specific enzymes, providing energy to biochemical processes that take place with the absorption of energy. In this case, ATP plays the role of an energy supplier. Having a small size, the ATP molecule diffuses into various parts of the cell. The stock of ATP in cells is continuously renewed due to the reactions of addition of the phosphoric acid residue to the adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) molecule:
ADP + H3P04 → ATP + H20
ATP synthesis, like hydrolysis, proceeds with the participation of enzymes, but is accompanied by the absorption of energy, the methods of obtaining which in microorganisms, although diverse, can be reduced to two types:
1) the use of light energy;
2) the use of the energy of chemical reactions.
In this case, both types of energy are transformed into the energy of chemical bonds of ATP. Thus, ATP acts as a transformer in the cell.
Anabolism and catabolism are inextricably linked, making up a single whole, since the products of energy metabolism (ATP and some low molecular weight compounds) are directly used in constructive cell metabolism (Fig. 6.1).
In the cells of microorganisms, the relationship between energy and constructive processes depends on a number of specific conditions, in particular on the nature of nutrients. Nevertheless, in terms of volume, catabolic reactions are usually superior to biosynthetic processes. The interrelation and conjugation of these two types of metabolism is manifested primarily in the fact that the total volume of constructive processes completely depends on the amount of available energy received in the course of energy metabolism.
Constructive metabolism is aimed at the synthesis of four main types of biopolymers: proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and lipids.
Below is a generalized schematic diagram of the biosynthesis of complex organic compounds, where the following main stages are highlighted: the formation of organic precursors from the simplest inorganic substances (I), from which "building blocks" (II) are synthesized at the next stage. Subsequently, the building blocks, binding to each other by covalent bonds, form biopolymers (III): Applications (Fig. No. 3)
The presented scheme of biosynthetic processes does not reflect the entire complexity of the transformation of low-molecular-weight precursors into building blocks with a large molecular weight. In fact, the synthesis proceeds as a series of successive reactions with the formation of various intermediate metabolic products. In addition, the levels of development of the biosynthetic abilities of microorganisms are very different. In some microbes, constructive metabolism includes all the stages shown in the diagram, in others it is limited to the second and third or only the third stage. That is why microorganisms differ sharply from each other in their nutritional needs. However, the elemental composition of food is the same for all living organisms and must include all the components that make up the cellular substance: carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, etc.
Depending on the carbon sources used in constructive exchange, microorganisms are divided into two groups: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs (from the Greek "autos" - itself, "trophe" - food) use carbon dioxide as the only source of carbon and from this simple inorganic precursor compound they synthesize all the necessary biopolymers. Autotrophs have the highest biosynthetic ability.
Heterotrophs (from the Greek “heteros” - other) need organic carbon sources. Their nutritional needs are extremely varied. Some of them feed on the waste products of other organisms or use dead plant and animal tissues. Such microorganisms are called saprophytes (from the Greek "sapros" - rotten and "phyton" - a plant). The number of organic compounds they use as carbon sources is extremely large - these are carbohydrates, alcohols, organic acids, amino acids, etc. Almost any natural compound can be used by one or another type of microorganism as a source of nutrition or energy.
For the synthesis of cellular proteins, microorganisms need nitrogen. In relation to the sources of nitrogen nutrition among microorganisms, autoaminotrophs and heteroaminotrophs can be distinguished. The former are able to use inorganic nitrogen (ammonium, nitrate, molecular) or the simplest forms of organic (urea) and from these compounds build a variety of proteins in their body. In this case, all forms of nitrogen are first converted into the ammonium form. This most reduced form of nitrogen is easily transformed into an amino group. Heteroaminotrophs need organic forms of nitrogen - proteins and amino acids. Some of them require a complete set of amino acids, others create the necessary protein compounds from one or two amino acids by converting them.
Many microorganisms heterotrophic with respect to carbon are autoaminotrophs. These include the bacteria involved in wastewater treatment.
The need for oxygen and hydrogen for constructive metabolism is met by microorganisms at the expense of water and organic nutrients. The sources of ash elements (P, S, K, Mg, Fe) are the corresponding mineral salts. The need for these elements is small, but the presence in the environment is mandatory. In addition, microelements - Zn, Co, Cu, Ni, etc. are necessary for the normal functioning of microbes. Part of them is part of the natural nutrition of microbes, part is assimilated by them from mineral salts.
Methods for obtaining food, that is, methods for feeding microorganisms, are very diverse. There are three main ways of feeding: holophytic, saprozoic, and holozoic.
Holophytic nutrition (from the Greek "holo" - as a whole, "fit" - a plant) occurs according to the type of photosynthesis of plants. Such nutrition is inherent only in autotrophs. Among microorganisms, this method is characteristic of algae, colored forms of flagellates and some bacteria.
The life of the human body is a very complex and unique phenomenon, however, it has such mechanisms that support its existence and at the same time they can be disassembled down to the simplest components that are accessible to everyone. Here, first of all, it is necessary to say about the metabolism of bacteria, which is complex only conditionally, in fact, such a process as the metabolism of bacteria is quite simple. To get acquainted with the metabolic process of microorganisms in detail, the science of microbiology helps. The processes under study help to form new forms of treatment for a wide variety of ailments.
If we talk about the general picture of the metabolic bacterial process, then we are talking about a certain reaction cycle, and on some reactions the task is to provide the human body with energy, and as for others, they are ways to replenish the body with matter, that is, in fact, they are a kind of building material ... If we talk about the metabolism of bacterial cells, then it is impossible to find differences from the biological principles of the general type. It is bacteria that are the basis of the provisional mechanism of the life process of living cells.
There are 2 types of such a process, which depend on metabolic products:
Most of the metabolic-type processes take place in a prokaryotic-type cell, and this process is of a one-time nature, all this has the form of a closed-type cycle. When the metabolic process takes place, products begin to form, which are accompanied by structures of the cellular type, then a biosynthetic reaction begins, in which certain enzymes take part, they carry out the process of synthesis of an energetic nature. These types of metabolism of microorganisms are not the only ones, there are others.
The metabolism of microorganisms refers to the substrate, here we are talking about several stages:
All the features of this process are due to the fact that there are two types of enzymes (we are talking about protein-type molecules that can accelerate reactions in the cellular structure:
It should be noted that there are a number of enzymes that are ways to be produced by the cellular structure on an ongoing basis (constitutive nature), and there are those that produce in the form of a reaction when a certain substrate appears.
Such a process in bacteria is carried out by certain methods of a biological type:
If we talk about how bacteria breathe in a chemotrophic way, then there can be 3 ways:
It should be noted that growth is a process when an individual increases in size, and as for the reproduction process itself, this is when the population begins to increase.
It is noteworthy that bacteria are able to multiply in such a way that binary division is simply carried out, but this method is far from the only one, there is also budding. If the bacteria have a gram-positive form, then there is the formation of a septum from a cell-type wall and a cytoplasmic-type membrane that can grow inward. If the bacteria are gram-negative, then a constriction begins to form, after which the cell splits into a pair of individuals.
The speed of the reproduction process is noteworthy; it can be different. If we talk about the overwhelming majority of bacteria, then they divide every half hour. And there are tuberculous mycobacteria, the division process of which is slower, suffice it to say that one division may take at least 18 hours. Spirochetes also do not divide quickly, about 10 hours, so you can see how the metabolism of microorganisms differs.
If you sow bacteria in a liquid nutrient medium, taking a certain volume, and then taking a sample every hour, then the bacterial growth has the shape of a curved line.
Such substances grow in several phases:
In conclusion, it should be noted that the metabolism of all bacteria and microbes may have certain differences, there may be a variety of factors. The individual characteristics of the human body are of great importance. And as for such a process as the regulation of metabolism, they began to study it even in prokaryotes, and specifically in prokaryotes (these are the operons of the intestinal stick).
To date, there are various methods of study. If sulfur bacteria are studied, then the study has its own characteristics, and other methods can be used to study bacterial changes. Iron bacteria, which have a unique feature of oxidizing ferrous iron, deserve special attention.
