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From Catherine to Catherine: Karl Karlovich Anderson The Stockholm boy Karl Anderson was one of those many foreigners whose talent blossomed in St. Petersburg; in this sense, his fate is typical. But the beginning of his life was far from ordinary;

Russian enlighteners in the age of Catherine II

In the second half of the 18th century, the ideas of the Enlightenment spread in Russia. This is the era of the reign of Catherine II (1762 - 1796). The empress herself tried in every possible way to create the image of an enlightened monarch. She corresponded with Voltaire, invited Diderot to Petersburg, read the works of Montesquieu. However, the approach of Catherine II to the ideas of enlightenment was selective. She shared the ideas of educators that education, upbringing, enlightenment are the main means of improving society. At the same time, the ideas about "natural" human rights, about the equality of all from birth, which were actively advocated by French philosophers, were rejected by her. Anything that could shake the absolutist, feudal-serf system was unacceptable for Catherine II.

Literature.

Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816)- Russian poet and playwright of the Enlightenment, statesman of the Russian Empire, senator, actual privy councilor.

played a huge role in the liberation of Russian literature from classicism and the formation of elements of the future realistic style.

Derzhavin's civil odes are addressed to persons endowed with great political power: monarchs, nobles. In them, the poet rises not only to laudatory, but also accusatory pathos. In the ode "Felitsa" Derzhavin the Enlightener sees in the monarch a person who has been entrusted by society with taking care of the welfare of citizens, therefore the right to be a monarch imposes on the ruler numerous duties in relation to the people. Derzhavin's innovation in this ode is not only in the interpretation of the image of the enlightened monarch, but also in the bold combination of laudatory and accusatory principles - ode and satire. This combination is a phenomenon of educational literature, because the enlighteners understood the life of society as a constant struggle between truth and error.

In the ode to "The Grandee" Derzhavin, the evil arising from the indifference of the grandees to their duty is presented with such indignation that can be traced only in some works of that time. The poet is outraged by the situation of the people suffering from the criminal attitude of courtiers.

In the poem "To Rulers and Judges" the indifference and greed of those in power do not leave the poet indifferent, and he demands the punishment of the guilty. The poet reminds the kings that they are as mortal as their subjects, and sooner or later they will appear before the judgment of God.

In "Monument" Derzhavin - the idea of ​​the right of their authors to immortality. In this poem, the poet recalls that he was the first to dare to abandon the solemn, pompous style of odes.

Derzhavin insisted on his human dignity and the independence of his judgment over modernity. By this, Derzhavin clarified the idea of ​​the poet's personal responsibility for his judgments, the idea of ​​the sincerity and truthfulness of his ideological propaganda, which is very important for the further development of progressive Russian literature.

Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov(1717-1777) - one of the largest representatives of Russian literature of the 18th century, the creator of the repertoire of the first Russian theater.

Sumarokov's creativity develops within the framework of classicism, in the form that he took in France XVII - early. XVIII centuries

Sumarokov's literary activity stops attention with its external diversity. He tried all genres: odes (solemn, spiritual, philosophical, anacreontic), epistles (messages), satires, elegies, songs, epigrams, madrigals, epitaphs; In his poetic technique, he used all the sizes that existed then, made experiments in the field of rhyme, applied various stanza structures.

Sumarokov's classicism differs, for example, from the classicism of his older contemporary Lomonosov. Sumarokov "lowers" classical poetics. “Decrease” is expressed in striving for less “high” themes, in the introduction of personal, intimate motives into poetry, in preference for “medium” and “low” genres to genres of “high” ones. Sumarokov creates a large number of lyric works in the genre of love songs, works of many satirical genres - fables, comedy, satire, epigrams.

Sumarokov poses a didactic task for the satire - "to mock the temper, to amuse and use its direct charter": Sumarokov ridicules the empty estate swagger ("not in the title, in action should be a nobleman"), warns against abuse of landlord power (see in particular " Chorus to the perverse light ", where the" tit "says that" overseas - people are not trafficked, villages are not put at stake, peasants are not ripped off ").

Sumarokov is one of the founders of the Russian parody, the author of the cycle "Absurd Odes", ridiculing the "frantic" odic style of Lomonosov.

Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin- Russian writer of the Catherine's era, the creator of the Russian everyday comedy (the action of which takes place in an everyday setting and conflicts are built on the basis of practical and family interests).

Fonvizin entered literature as one of the successors of Kantemir and Sumarokov. He was brought up in the conviction that the nobility, to which he himself belonged, should be educated, humane, constantly caring for the interests of the fatherland, and the tsarist power - to nominate worthy nobles to high positions for the common good. But among the nobles he saw cruel ignoramuses, and at court - "nobles in case" (simply put, the empress's lovers), who ruled the state at their own whim.

He wrote satirical poems. Of these, two were later printed and came down to us: the fable "The Fox-Koznodey" (preacher) and "The Epistle to my servants Shumilov, Vanka and Petrushka." Fonvizin's fable is an evil satire on court flatterers, and The Message is a wonderful work, rather unusual for its time. Fonvizin addresses the most important philosophical question "What is this light created for?" illiterate people of that time; it is immediately clear that they will not be able to answer it. And so it happens. Honest uncle Shumilov admits that he is not ready to judge such difficult things.

1769 creates his first original comedy "Brigadier". "Brigadier" made a strong impression on the then public. In the 18th century, the word "brigadier" meant a military rank. The Fonvizinsky Brigadier is a rude, narrow-minded soldier. N.I. Panin described the work as "the first comedy in our customs." Fonvizin was compared to Moliere, his comedy never left the stage. During the action, the heroes of the play did not speak, but lived on the stage. They read cards, play chess. All this was new and unusual for the Russian drama of that time. According to Vyazemsky, "in the" Brigadier "for the first time they heard on our stage a natural, witty language." For the first time, the mores and characters of his era are shown so vividly and comprehensively.

In retirement, Fonvizin devoted himself entirely to literature. He was a member of the Russian Academy, which brought together the best Russian writers. The Academy worked on the creation of a dictionary of the Russian language, Fonvizin took it upon himself to compile a dictionary of synonyms, which he, literally translating the word "synonym" from Greek, called "estates." His "Experience of the Russian Estates" for its time was a very serious linguistic work, and not just a screen for satire on the Catherine's court and the methods of the empress's government (this is how this work is often interpreted).

Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826)- an outstanding historian, the largest Russian writer of the era of sentimentalism (works written within the framework of this artistic direction emphasize the reader's perception, that is, the sensuality that arises when reading them), nicknamed the Russian Stern.

Karamzin becomes the founder of sentimentalism in Russia. Travels around Europe, and in 1791, settling in Moscow, became the editor and author of the "Moscow Journal", leaving journalism only in protest during the period of Pavlov's reign (1796-1801). In 1792 he created two works that became the most famous and beloved works of Russian literature of that time: the stories "Natalia, the boyar's daughter" and "Poor Liza". These stories are written in the style of sentimentalism.

To describe the feelings, the image of which was the main object of the sentimentalists, it was necessary to choose the appropriate words. Words and expressions introduced into the Russian language by N. M. Karamzin: sensitivity, delicacy, falling in love, delicate taste, sophistication, future, representative, public, humane, improve, revolution, development ...

Karamzin changed the image of the hero of a literary work. His heroes are not kings and leaders, but young girls, simple peasant women who also know how to love and suffer.

Since 1804, Karamzin undertakes an enormous amount of work, on which he will work for more than twenty years - until the end of his life: writing the "History of the Russian State". The work on it can be called a feat of life for Karamzin. "History ..." will inspire many Russian writers to create works on historical themes (recall, for example, Pushkin's "Boris Godunov").

Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802) - Russian writer, philosopher, poet, de facto head of the St. Petersburg customs, member of the Commission for the Drafting of Laws under Alexander I.

He began his literary career in 1789, with the publication of the story "The Life of Fyodor Vasilyevich Ushakov". Taking advantage of the decree of Catherine II on free printing houses, Radishchev acquired a home printing house and in 1790 published his main work there - "A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" (1790) - covering a wide range of ideas of the Russian Enlightenment, a truthful, compassionate depiction of the life of the people, a sharp denunciation autocracy and serfdom. The book attracted the attention of Catherine II, who wrote in the margins: "A rebel, worse than Pugachev," the author was arrested and exiled to Siberia, the book was confiscated and until 1905 was distributed in copies.

Painters

Alexey Petrovich Antropov (1716-1795) - A.P. Antropov was born in the family of a soldier of the Semenovsky regiment. In 1732 he was enrolled in the Office of the Buildings, where he studied under A.M. Matveev. Having mastered professional skills, from 1739 he worked in the same "painting team", led by I. Ya. Vishnyakov. In the 1740-50s. the artist performed decorative paintings in the palaces of St. Petersburg and its suburbs. In 1755 Antropov was invited to Moscow, where he painted the ceiling in the palace of the Counts Golovins. When Moscow University was founded in 1759 on the initiative of Count II Shuvalov, the artist was offered a job as a painter at the Faculty of Arts. He did not stay there for long, since in 1761 he was appointed chief artist of the Holy Synod in St. Petersburg.

Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov (1735-1808)- FS Rokotov came from the serfs of the princes Repnins. Scant biographical information does not tell us anything about the artist's teachers or about the early period of his work. But his portraits are beautiful and sensual. You can admire them for a very long time.

Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky (1735 - 1822)- D. G. Levitsky belonged to an old Ukrainian family. The artist's father was a hereditary priest and at the same time was engaged in engraving. It was the father who became the first teacher of the future artist. Levitsky studied at home, in Kiev, with A.P. Antropov, and then in St. Petersburg. Levitsky's portraits masterfully depict materials - silky heavy satin, light airy lace; all objects in the paintings are almost tangible.

Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky (1757-1825)- Borovikovsky was born into a poor family descended from Ukrainian Cossacks. His father and two brothers, Vasily and Ivan, were icon painters who worked in the surrounding churches. Naturally, Vladimir also became an icon painter. In addition to icons, he also painted portraits, in the spirit of that naive semi-professional painting that was widespread in Ukraine. The chance helped him to part with the wilderness province. In 1787, he painted two allegorical paintings to decorate one of the "traveling palaces" erected on the route of Catherine II to the Crimea. His last work was the iconostasis for the church at the Smolensk cemetery in St. Petersburg, which bears traces of morbid exaltation. Borovikovsky brought up two students, one of whom was A.G. Venetsianov, who took over the poetic perception of the world from his mentor.

Ivan Petrovich Argunov (1729-1802)- IP Argunov belonged to a talented family of serf intellectuals - artists and architects. All his life Argunov had to fulfill numerous economic duties. He was the ruler of houses (actually palaces) of P. B. Sheremetev, first in St. Petersburg, then in Moscow. Apparently, in 1746-47. Argunov studied with G.-Kh. Groot, court painter of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. In any case, in 1747, together with Groot, the young painter performed icons for the church of the Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace. Argunov also painted icons later. But his main vocation was a portrait.

CONCLUSION... The main desire of the enlightenment was to find, through the activity of the human mind, the natural principles of human life (natural religion, natural law, the natural order of the economic life of the physiocrats, etc.). Under the influence of the ideas of enlightenment, reforms were also undertaken that were supposed to rebuild the entire social life (enlightened absolutism and the French Revolution). This era left not a small trace in Russian painting and literature. Enlightenment replaces the Renaissance and anticipates romanticism.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State Polar Academy

Department of Regional Studies and Social Sciences and Humanities

abstract

Topic: Catherine II and education in Russia

Completed by: Borisova E.D.

Checked by: A.M. Sudarikov

Saint Petersburg 2015

Introduction

Among the autocrats of the Russian Empire, there are many strong, strong-willed personalities, whose political and legislative activities had a huge impact on the growth of not only Russia as a whole (in terms of economy, foreign policy relations), but also individual social strata, life and culture of society. The gradual modernization of life in Russia, the main impetus of which was given by the "European policy" of Peter I, was continued by other monarchs, whose era played an equally important role in the formation of the powerful Russian Empire. Empress Catherine II was a powerful legislator; in her government, she strove for reforms and made an invaluable contribution to the development and strengthening of Russia. The era of her reign (the second half of the 18th century) is distinguished by historians as a separate stage in the development of the empire, since it was Catherine II who carried out a course of reforms in the socio-political life of Russia, aimed at its modernization and strengthening state power in the country. This legislative activity was in line with the spirit of the times, new European trends and ideas that the Enlightenment era brought with it in the 18th century. The policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine the Great, as the main reflection of the principles of the Enlightenment in Russia, is interesting not only for its innovations, but also for the combination of Western trends with the identity of Russia.

The establishment of absolutism, most vividly marked in Russia by the reign of Peter I, also confirmed the idea of ​​strict legality: for Peter I himself, that law was the best, in which his monarch's will was expressed as directly and directly as possible. Over time, however, a new requirement was included in this understanding of the relationship between the power of the monarch and the rule of law: the monarch is by no means autocratic over the law, and if he wants to be a servant of the state, then he himself must obey the laws of his country. This was the state idea of ​​a new, legal or "enlightened" absolutism, which became the basis of modernization in Russia during the reign of Catherine II. Naturally, when considering the topic, first of all, it is worth relying on the consideration of the reforms and laws issued by the empress in order to formulate and consolidate the most basic principles of the organization of the state and legal policy.

Catherine's global policy had a well-defined political program based, on the one hand, on the ideas of enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. This is what made her to be recognized as a paramount historical figure, first of all, because Catherine II seriously thought about putting into effect the reform of Russian laws. And through this - and the whole society, in accordance with the ideas of that time. Catherine II decided to carry out such a modernization through her own legislative work, the most important principles of which were gradualness, consistency, taking into account public sentiments and proclaiming the basis of her reign to care for the welfare of her subjects in accordance with the laws emanating from the monarch.

“In the first three years of my reign,” wrote Catherine II already in her declining years, “she drew in her mind the conclusion that the way of thinking in general, and even the civil law itself, cannot be corrected otherwise than by establishing rules useful for all things in general, And for this I began to read, then write the Order of the Code of Laws. For two years I read and wrote, without speaking about that for a year and a half, following my only mind and heart with a zealous desire for benefit, honor and happiness empire, and to bring to the highest degree of well-being of all kinds of people living in it - both everyone in general and everyone in particular. "

Personality of Catherine II before accession to the throne

German by birth, French by her favorite language and upbringing, Catherine strove to prove that she was capable of expressing the interests of the Russian people. She did not understand Peter III's dislike for everything Russian. On the contrary, she strove to get to know better Russian history, customs, the history of the noble families around her. Knowing the religiosity of the people, Catherine meticulously performed the rituals of the Orthodox Church, prayed and fasted for a long time. In her "Notes of Empress Catherine II" she would later write "I wanted to be Russian, so that the Russians would love me."

Ekaterina Alekseevna was characterized by frankness bordering on cynicism. After the wedding, she made no secret that she did not need Peter, but the imperial crown. Later, in the "Notes" she admitted: "Here are the arguments, or rather, the conclusions that I made as soon as I saw that I was firmly established in Russia, and which I never lost sight of for a minute: 1) like the Grand Duke , 2) to please the empress, 3) to please the people ... I did not neglect anything to achieve this: obsequiousness, obedience, respect, the desire to please, the desire to act as it should, sincere affection: everything on my part was used from 1744 to 1761 " ...

Gradually, step by step, she won the trust and sympathy in the St. Petersburg high society. Of course, sometimes you had to step on your own pride, and sometimes falsity and window dressing were not required. From childhood she was told, and she herself understood that she was ugly. But at the same time, she knew that she was very smart, and therefore forced herself from a young age to learn the art of being liked by people. She easily assimilated the way of actions and thoughts, the manner of people among whom she had to live, without neglecting anything, in order to settle in an unfamiliar society, where she came by chance. Court life, the need to constantly be on guard, to defend their rights and interests, tempered the character of Catherine. She becomes a mature politician who knows how to achieve her goals.

In communicating with people, Catherine knew how to be patient, listened carefully to those with whom she communicated, even if the person was talking obvious nonsense. She had a habit of noticing not the weaknesses, but the strengths of people. This was very useful to her during her reign. Everyone recognized Catherine's irresistible charm.

The surrounding people sometimes made it clear to the crown princess that she was a stranger in Russia, but this only provoked her and tempered her spiritually. Sometimes, being alone with herself, she cried, but in public she was always collected and ready for any unexpected event. Naturally proud, she did not allow herself to complain, much less look like a pitiful victim of circumstances.

Coming to power of Catherine II

When Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was looking for a bride for the heir to the Russian throne - her nephew and grandson of Emperor Peter I - Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, she settled on the candidacy of Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta, daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst II, the ruler of the secondary German northern principality, Frederick II. Prussian.

In 1744, the bride and her mother, Johannes Elizabeth, nee Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp, arrived in Russia and in 1745, after adopting Orthodoxy and the name Ekaterina Alekseevna, married an heir, who was her second cousin on the maternal side (before adopting Orthodoxy his name was Karl Peter Ulrich Holstein-Gottorp).

With a sense of purpose worthy of admiration, the young Grand Duchess - she was then 16 years old - tried to adapt to her new environment, learn the language, learn more and love her new homeland. At the same time, she stubbornly prepared herself for the role of the emperor's wife.

Unlike Catherine, her husband and heir to the throne did not show qualities corresponding to his future position as emperor of the Russian Empire. Since childhood, sickly, having lost his parents early (his mother, Princess Anna Petrovna, died shortly after his birth, and his father, Karl Friedrich, when his son was 10 years old), he was a poorly educated, absurd young man, whose development lagged behind age norms.

In December 1761, after the death of Empress Elizabeth, 34-year-old Peter III ascended the throne. Unlike his wife Catherine, he was unpopular because of his open contempt for everything Russian. Great discontent in society was caused by a sharp turn in foreign policy in favor of his idol, the Prussian king Frederick the Great, who found himself in a very difficult situation during the Seven Years War.

At a critical moment, Peter III came to his aid, refusing to use the results of the victories of the Russian army over the Prussian, concluding a peace with him that was unfavorable for Russia. These and a number of other actions of the new emperor led to the fact that during the six months of his reign, he turned against himself the nobility, the clergy and almost everyone at court.

The family life of Catherine and Peter did not work out. Apparently, it was difficult for the heir to be close to his wife, who surpassed him in strength of character and intellect. As contemporaries testify, the emperor was thinking about removing Catherine to a monastery and marrying his favorite. This forced Ekaterina Alekseevna to speed up the preparations for the coup in her favor.

In this risky business, she relied primarily on the support of the guards, with which she was connected through the brothers Grigory and Alexei Orlov, as well as authoritative dignitaries and aristocrats - counts N.I. Panin, K.G. Razumovsky, Princess E.R. Dashkov and others. Unlike other palace coups, the coup of Catherine, which began on June 28, 1762, lasted two days, which required a lot of courage and self-control from her. As a result, the legitimate monarch was overthrown and a woman ascended to the throne, who had almost no right to do so.

"Catherine made a double seizure: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of her father," wrote Klyuchevsky.

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

1. The influence of European educators

While still a Grand Duchess, Catherine became addicted to reading. However, rejecting the love stories that were then popular among European aristocrats, she began to work on more serious literature. The works of the French enlighteners, which accidentally fell into the hands of the future empress, became her desk books. The ideas of the best European minds of the second half of the 18th century penetrated deeply into her soul and remained there forever. The fact that not all of her plans came true is a fact, but the fact that until the end of her days Catherine II remained an adherent of theories of the Enlightenment also cannot be denied.

Russia, with its feudal regime, low literacy of the population and general backwardness of development as a whole, presented itself to both Catherine and the leaders of the French enlightenment as a country of great opportunities, where the implementation of these ideas should have yielded the most tangible results. Being already empress Catherine II writes: “I love countries that have not yet been cultivated, believe me, these are the best countries. Russia seemed to her to be a grateful field for educational work. "I must give justice to my people," she wrote to Voltaire, "this is an excellent soil on which good seed grows quickly; but we also need axioms that are undeniably accepted as true." These axioms were the ideas that she conceived to put in the basis of the new Russian legislation. Yes, finally, Russia is still a country that is no longer completely alien to Europe, and Catherine built her reform plan on the syllogism, in a condensed form, set out at the beginning of Chapter 1 of her "Order": Russia is a European power; Peter I, introducing European manners and customs in the European people, found such conveniences that he himself did not expect. The conclusion followed by itself: the axioms, which represent the last and best fruit of European thought, will find the same comfort in this people. ”However, Catherine perfectly distinguished the border between theory and political practice. An example of this is the dialogue between the Empress and Denis Diderot. They talked about Russia very often, the philosopher considered it his duty to instruct the empress on how she should act, and it seems she listened to his speeches, but was in no hurry to follow his advice. Catherine replied: “It is good to fill books with your lofty ideas, but to act on them is bad. When making plans for various transformations, you forget the difference between our provisions. You work on paper that endures everything, while I, the unfortunate empress, work for mere mortals who are extremely sensitive and ticklish. "

Even earlier, while traveling along the Volga in 1767, she wrote to Voltaire, who was hastening her with the publication of new laws: “Just think that these laws should serve both Europe and Asia; what a difference in climate, inhabitants, habits, concepts! in Asia and I see everything with my own eyes. There are 20 different peoples, each not similar to each other. However, it is necessary to sew a decent dress for each. It's easy to put common principles, but particulars? It's a whole special world: you need to create, unite, protect it. " And this despite the fact that usually Catherine behaved in relation to Voltaire, with whom she corresponded most actively, as a modest student who sought to bring his ideas to life.

Education policy of Catherine II

Historians characterize the policy of Catherine II as "enlightened absolutism." This policy was typical for many European states of the 18th century. XVIII century - the time of the dominance of educational ideology. French educators Sh.L. Montesquieu, M.V. Voltaire, D. Diderot, J.J. Rousseau formulated the main provisions of the educational concept of social development. Philosophers saw one of the ways to achieve freedom, equality and brotherhood in the activities of enlightened monarchs who, using their power, will help the cause of enlightening society and establishing justice.

The idea of ​​the state as the main instrument for achieving public good prevailed in the minds of the people of that time.

The ideal of Sh.L. Montesquieu was a constitutional monarchy with a clear division of legislative, executive and judicial powers. Catherine II strove to build a legitimate autocratic monarchy, to update it taking into account new historical realities, and not to introduce a constitutional democratic system, as the enlighteners wanted. The monarchs' understanding of equality and freedom did not go beyond the consolidation of the rights and privileges of each class within the framework of an autocratic monarchy.

The development and implementation of the principles of enlightened absolutism in Russia acquired the character of an integral state-political reform, during which a new state and legal appearance of an absolute monarchy was formed. At the same time, social and legal policy was characterized by class demarcation: the nobility, the middle class and the peasantry. Domestic and foreign policy of the second half of the 18th century, prepared by the measures of previous reigns, is marked by important legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial annexations. This is due to the activities of major statesmen and military leaders: A.R. Vorontsov, P.A. Rumyantseva, A.G. Orlova, G.A. Potemkina, A.A. Bezborodko, A.V. Suvorov, F.F. Ushakov and others.

The tasks of the "enlightened monarch" Catherine imagined as follows: "1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which must be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and make it obey the laws. 3 It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect for its neighbors. " In real life, the empress's declarations were often at odds with deeds.

Catherine II and educational institutions

In May 1764, the first educational institution for girls in Russia was founded - the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. Next, the Novodevichy Institute was opened for the education of bourgeois girls. Soon, Catherine II drew attention to the Land Gentry Corps, and in 1766 its new charter was adopted. Developing the Decree "Institutions for the Governance of the Provinces of the All-Russian Empire" in 1775, Catherine II actively began to resolve problems in education. The duty to open schools at the provincial and district level was entrusted to her by the orders of public charity. In 1780, Catherine made an inspection trip to the northwestern regions of Russia. This trip showed the successes achieved and what still had to be done in the future. In 1777 the State Commercial School for the merchants was opened. In St. Petersburg, Catherine II, using her own funds in 1781, founded an educational institution at St. Isaac's Cathedral.

In the same year, six more schools were organized at the temples. By 1781, 486 people were enrolled in them.

Catherine II - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who so intensively and directly communicated with their subjects by drawing up manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a blank pen without feeling the urge to immediately dip it in ink."

Ekaterina was engaged in literary activity, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, fables, fairy tales, comedies "Oh, time!" "(1771-1772), essay, libretto for five operas. All St. Petersburg performances based on the works of Catherine were furnished extremely richly. The operas "Fevey" and "Gorebogatyr", as well as the oratorio "Initial Administration" were published in clavier and score (which was an extraordinary rarity in Russia at that time).

Ekaterina took part in the weekly satirical magazine "Anything and everything", published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​the magazine was to criticize human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favored the Enlightenment. Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting. It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The aim was to modernize Russian science and culture.

At the same time, many historians point to the one-sided nature of such patronage on the part of Catherine. Money and awards were generously endowed mainly by foreign scientists and cultural figures who spread the glory of Catherine II abroad. The contrast in relation to Russian artists, sculptors and writers is especially striking. Living in Russia, Falcone was indignant at the tsarina's rudeness towards the excellent artist Losenko. "The poor man, humiliated, without a piece of bread, wanted to leave St. Petersburg and came to me to pour out his grief," he writes. During her entire reign, Catherine made an order or gave subsidies to very few Russian artists, but she did not skimp on the purchase of works by foreign authors. "

As noted by N.I. Pavlenko, "the poet GR Derzhavin received only 300 souls of peasants, two gold snuff boxes and 500 rubles in his entire life at court." (although he was not only a writer, but also an official who carried out various assignments), while foreign writers, without doing anything special, received whole fortunes from her. At the same time, it is well known what kind of "reward" a number of Russian writers Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov, Knyazhnin received from her, who were repressed, and their works were banned and burned.

Domestic literature in the era of Catherine, as well as in the 18th century as a whole, according to a number of historians, was in its infancy. The "official" literature of the era of Catherine is represented by several well-known names: Fonvizin, Sumarokov, Derzhavin - and by a very small number and volume of works written by them, and cannot be compared with Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. True, there was also "unofficial" literature: Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov, which was banned, and the authors were severely repressed.

Domestic policy

In the first two or three years of her reign, Catherine strenuously searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme circumspection and caution. She had not yet mastered the new role for herself and either continued to implement the policy outlined in the previous time, or completed it. Certain innovations of the Empress were of a private nature and did not yet give grounds to classify the reign of Catherine as one of the outstanding phenomena in Russian history.

1. Imperial Council and Senate transformation

Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed to create an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 higher dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as in the condition of 1730). Ekaterina rejected this project.

According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - on December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, at the head was the prosecutor general. Each department had specific powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became a body for control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Ekaterina and her office with state secretaries. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department.

2. Stacked commission

An attempt was made to convene the Legislated Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out comprehensive reforms. On December 14, 1766, Catherine II published the Manifesto on the convocation of the commission and decrees on the procedure for elections to deputies. The nobles are allowed to elect one deputy from the county, the townspeople - one deputy from the city. More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod. As a guiding document of the Commission in 1767, the Empress prepared the "Order" - a theoretical foundation of enlightened absolutism. According to V.A. Tomsinova, Catherine II, already as the author of the "Order ..." can be ranked among the galaxy of Russian jurists of the second half of the 18th century. However, V.O. Klyuchevsky called "The Order" "a compilation of the then educational literature." It is generally known that it was almost completely rewritten from the works of Montesquieu "On the Spirit of Laws" and Beccaria "On Crimes and Punishments", which Catherine herself recognized. As she herself wrote in a letter to Frederick II, "in this work I own only the arrangement of the material, and in some places one line, one word."

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow, then the meetings were moved to St. Petersburg. The meetings and debates lasted for a year and a half, after which the Commission was disbanded, under the pretext of the need for the deputies to go to war with the Ottoman Empire, although it was later proved by historians that there was no such need. According to a number of contemporaries and historians, the work of the Legislative Commission was a propaganda action by Catherine II, aimed at glorifying the Empress and creating her favorable image in Russia and abroad. absolutism enlightened senate

3. Provincial reform

Under Catherine the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained practically unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783 was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. Also, the special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant than that of Russian landowners. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

"The institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - a province, a province, a district, a two-tier structure began to operate - a governorship, a district (which was based on the principle of a healthy population). From the previous 23 provinces, 53 governorships were formed, in each of which 350-400 thousand male souls lived. The governorships were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand male souls.

Since there were clearly not enough cities - district centers, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. The main authority of the district was the Lower Zemstvo Court, headed by a police captain elected by the local nobility. A county treasurer and a county surveyor were appointed to the counties, modeled on the provinces.

The governor-general ruled over several governorships, headed by governors (governors), herald-fiscal and refatgei. The Governor-General had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and teams located in the provinces were subordinate to him. The Governor-General reported directly to the Emperor. The Governors General were appointed by the Senate. Provincial prosecutors and tiuns were subordinate to the governors-general.

Finance in the governorships was handled by the Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor with the support of the Accounts Chamber. The land management was carried out by the provincial surveyor at the head of the excavation. The executive body of the governor (governor) was the provincial government, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Public Charity Order was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as estate judicial institutions: the Upper Zemsky Court for noblemen, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigations between the townspeople, and the Upper Massacre for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chamber judged all estates, were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces

The captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, the leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In the counties, as in the provinces, there are estates: for the nobility (the county court), for the townspeople (the city magistrate) and for the state peasants (lower reprisals). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to end strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This judgment was wordless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since there were clearly not enough cities - district centers, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities have appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

The city was withdrawn into a separate administrative unit. At its head, instead of the governor, a governor was put in charge, endowed with all the rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by the quarter overseer.

4. Liquidation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785 led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack foreman with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no need to preserve the special rights and control system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was done by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited the Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; In the same year, the Army of the Faithful Zaporozhians was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 the Kuban was granted to them for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civilian government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

5. Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining the "patriarchal" industry and agriculture. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, the acceptance of deposits was introduced). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.

State regulation of prices for salt was introduced, which was one of the vital goods in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increasing competition and ultimately improving the quality of the goods. However, the price of salt was soon increased again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the private monopoly of the merchant Shemyakin on the import of silk, and others.

The role of Russia in the world economy has increased - Russian sailing linen has been exported to England in large quantities, exports of cast iron and iron increased to other European countries (consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market has also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials grew especially strongly: timber (5 times), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The volume of the country's exports increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade in the late 18th - early 19th centuries; the number of foreign merchant ships that annually entered Russian ports during the reign of Catherine increased from 1340 to 2430.

In the structure of exports in the era of Catherine, there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the volume of import of which was several times higher than domestic production. So, the volume of domestic manufacturing production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles. Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements and serf labor prevailed. Thus, from year to year, the cloth factories could not satisfy even the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth "to the side", in addition, the cloth was of poor quality, and had to be bought abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, "colossus") harm the state by reducing the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both - on the basis of "patriarchal" methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively introduced at that time in the West - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries, which began soon after the death of Catherine II ...

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine's policy was a gradual transition from the protectionism characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna to the complete liberalization of exports and imports. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and the ban on grain exports, which from that time began to grow rapidly, were abolished. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own journal. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, which significantly reduced tariff barriers in comparison with the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties at a rate of 60 to 100% or more); they were even more reduced in the customs tariff of 1782.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land). From the first years of Catherine's reign, famine periodically began to arise in the countryside, which some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. Pokrovsky associated it with the beginning of the mass export of grain, which was previously prohibited under Elizaveta Petrovna, and by the end of Catherine's reign it amounted to 1.3 million rubles. in year

Introduced into circulation in 1769, paper money - banknotes - in the first decade of its existence accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, an increasing number of banknotes were issued, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value had depreciated 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money from abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of 15.5 million rubles. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenditures significantly exceeded revenues, which was stated by Paul I upon accession to the throne.

6. Education, science, healthcare

In 1768, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of female education. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics study, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded on October 11, 1783.

At the same time, historians do not appreciate the progress in the field of education and science. A. Truaya points out that the work of the academy was mainly based not on the cultivation of its own personnel, but on the invitation of eminent foreign scientists (Euler, Pallas, Boehmer, Storch, Kraft, Miller, Wachmeister, Georgi, Klinger, etc.), however, "the stay of all these scientists at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences did not enrich the treasury of human knowledge. " According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, when the Moscow University was established in 1755, it had 100 students, and after 30 years - only 82. Many students could not pass exams and receive a diploma: for example, during the entire reign of Catherine, not a single physician received a scientific diploma, that is did not pass the exams. The study was poorly organized (teaching was conducted in French or Latin), and the nobles were very reluctant to study. The same shortage of students was in two maritime academies, which could not even recruit the 250 students required by the state.

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children, where they received education and upbringing. The Widows Treasury was created to help widows.

Mandatory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine decided to set a personal example to her subjects: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.

New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.

National policy

After the annexation of the lands that had previously been part of the Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned out to be in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attach them to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "About permission for all foreigners entering Russia, to settle in which provinces they wish and the rights granted to them" called upon foreign subjects to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for migrants. Soon, the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, set aside for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. The total number of new subjects acquired in this way by Russia reached 7 million. As a result, as V.O. Klyuchevsky, in the Russian Empire, "the strife of interests" between different peoples has intensified. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempted from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; the Pale of Settlement was introduced for the Jews; from the Ukrainian and Belarusian population on the territory of the former Rzeczpospolita, the poll tax was initially not levied at all, and then it was levied in half. The most discriminated against in these conditions was the indigenous population, which led to the following incident: some Russian noblemen in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to be "registered as Germans" so that they could enjoy the appropriate privileges.

Estates politics

Nobility and townspeople. On April 21, 1785, two letters were issued: "Certificate for the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Certificate of honor to cities". The empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them to be the crown of the "pro-nobility policy" of the kings of the 18th century. According to N.I. Pavlenko, "In the history of Russia the nobility has never been blessed with such varied privileges as under Catherine II."

Both charters finally secured for the upper estates those rights, duties and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine's predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility as an estate was formed by decrees of Peter I and at the same time received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to dispose of estates without restriction; and by the decree of Peter III, it was finally freed from compulsory service to the state.

Certificate of Appreciation to the Nobility:

* The already existing rights were confirmed.

* the nobility was freed from the quartering of military units and teams

* from corporal punishment

* the nobility received the title to the bowels of the earth

* the right to have their own estate institutions

* the name of the 1st estate was changed: not "nobility", but "noble nobility".

* it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to legal heirs.

* nobles have exclusive ownership of land, but the "Letter" does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.

* Ukrainian foremen were equal in rights with Russian nobles.

* A nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the right to vote.

* only noblemen, whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles, could hold elective posts.

Diploma for the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire:

1) the right of the top of the merchant class not to pay the poll tax was confirmed; 2) replacement of the recruiting service with a cash contribution.

The division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1) "real city dwellers" - homeowners ("Real city dwellers are those who have a house or other building or place or land in this city"); 2) merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles); 3) artisans registered in the guilds; 4) foreign and nonresident merchants; 5) eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, wealthy bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as urban intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists; 6) the townspeople who "feed on trades, handicrafts and work" (not having immovable property in the city). Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called "bourgeois".

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for the appropriation of the nobility.

The granting of maximum rights and privileges to the nobility and their complete release from duties in relation to the state led to the emergence of a phenomenon that was widely covered in the literature of that era (the comedy "The Minor" by Fonvizin, the journal "Truten" by Novikov, etc.) and in historical works. As V.O. Klyuchevsky, a nobleman of Catherine's era, "was a very strange phenomenon: the manners, habits, concepts, feelings he mastered, the very language in which he thought — everything was alien, everything was imported, and at home he did not have any living organic ties with those around him. , no serious business ... in the West, abroad, they saw him as a disguised Tatar, and in Russia they looked at him as if he was a Frenchman who was accidentally born in Russia. "

Peasants in the era of Catherine made up about 95% of the population, and serfs made up more than 90% of the population, while the nobles made up only 1%, and the rest of the estates - 9%. According to the reform of Catherine, the peasants did not pay the rent in the black earth regions, but the black earth ones worked out the corvee. According to the general opinion of historians, the position of this largest group of the population in the era of Catherine was the worst in the entire history of Russia. A number of historians compare the situation of the serfs of that era with slaves. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, the landowners "turned their villages into slave plantations, which are difficult to distinguish from the North American plantations before the liberation of the blacks."

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of the military commands sent to suppress the peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.

According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the term of hard labor was set by him himself; the landowners also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.

The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; disobedient persons were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court)

In 1783 serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (Left-Bank Ukraine and the Russian Black Earth Region),

In 1796 serfdom was introduced in Novorossiya (Don, North Caucasus),

After the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the feudal regime was tightened in the territories that had become part of the Russian Empire (Right-Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

According to N.I. Pavlenko, under Catherine "serfdom developed in depth and breadth", which was "an example of a blatant contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serf regime."

At the same time, the position of the monastic peasants was eased, and they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

The higher clergy (episcopate) lost their autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which gave bishops' houses and monasteries the opportunity to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the monastic clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.

Religious politics

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was declared in Russia under Catherine II. Thus, in 1773, a law on the tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other confessions; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in February 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of her land property. Monastic peasants number about 2 million. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economics. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Little Russia, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786. Thus, the clergy became dependent on the secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth an equalization in the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

In the first years of the reign of Catherine II, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. Continuing the policy of her husband, Peter III, who was overthrown by her, the Empress supported his initiative to return the Old Believers and the economically active population from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions) and they were allowed to have priests.

However, already in 1765 the persecutions resumed. The Senate decreed that Old Believers were not allowed to build churches, and Catherine confirmed this with her decree; already built temples were demolished. During these years, not only churches were destroyed, but also the whole city of Old Believers and schismatics (Vetka) in Little Russia, which after that ceased to exist. And in 1772 a sect of eunuchs was persecuted in the Oryol province. K. Valishevsky believes that the reason for the continued persecution of Old Believers and schismatics, in contrast to other religions, was that they were viewed not only as a religious, but also as a socio-political movement. So, according to the doctrine widespread among schismatics, Catherine II, along with Peter I, was considered "the tsar-antichrist."

The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform divine services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

The Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice its faith. Religious affairs and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. The Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the corresponding class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787 in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the full Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for free distribution to the "Kirghiz". The publication significantly differed from the European ones, primarily in that it had a Muslim character: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued, in which the empress commanded "to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has in its department all the spiritual ranks of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region." Thus, Catherine began to build the Muslim community into the system of state structure of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

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