Getting ready for the exam. 24 task.
Expressive syntax
A rhetorical question
A stylistic figure that contains a statement in the form of a question.
A rhetorical question is characterized by a contradiction of form and content on the basis of assertiveness - negativity.
Sentences are negative in form, convey an affirmative message, and sentences with an affirmative form matter
denial. After a rhetorical question, a question mark is put, sometimes an exclamation mark. Occasionally a combination of both is used.
Wealth is good to have; but who should dare to be proud of them?
In a sable fool I saw a fur coat who, being proud, hated all people.
(M. Lomonosov)
1) The interrogative sentence contains a statement. Let's try to express the same thoughts in the form of a declarative sentence: "No one should dare to be proud of wealth. There is nothing to admire here. "
What changed? The meaning of the sentence remained the same, but the emotionality and expressiveness that the rhetorical question introduced has disappeared.
A rhetorical question does not require an answer, it is used to enhance emotionality, expressiveness of speech.
Rhetorical exclamation
A stylistic figure that contains a statement in the form of an exclamation.
Rhetorical exclamation serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
1) Alas! before the power of a stranger the country bowed.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
2) Awful day!
Alas! we all perish: shelter and food!
3) My friend, beautiful impulses have dedicated their souls to the homeland!
Alas! - expresses strong regret, bitterness from what is said in the next sentence. The first sentence is a simple exclamation (in such a role was played by the interdomainAlas ).
The second sentence expresses horror, fear.
The third sentence expresses a motivation for action.
Rhetorical
appeal
An address is a word or a combination of words that names the person to whom they are addressing with speech, i.e. addressee. Rhetorical appeal is a stylistic figure in which, in the form of an appeal to inanimate objects, phenomena, concepts, etc. the author's different attitude to what is being said is expressed, solemnity, elation and other shades of mood are conveyed.
1) My friends! Our union is wonderful.
He, like a soul, is inseparable and eternal.
(A.S. Pushkin)
2) Flowers, love, trees,
idleness,
Fields ! I am devoted to you
soul.
(A.S. Pushkin)
1)" My friends "- the poet addresses his lyceum friends. The address refers to specific people, it is used to attract the attention of the interlocutor (the addressee of the speech). This is a simple appeal.
2) In the 2nd sentence, the address refers to inanimate objects -flowers, trees, fields , abstract concepts, and these objects cannot be the interlocutors of the author, cannot respond to his appeal. Such addresses give the speech solemnity, show the emotional state of the author. These addresses are called rhetorical.
Inversion
In Russian, there is a direct and reverse word order in a sentence. Inversion is a violation of the direct word order. This is an artistic technique, using which the author achieves intonation and stylistic expressiveness.
Direct word order: subject - predicate. Reverse word order: predicate - subject.
1) 0 is safe hunting on a bear,scary woundedthe beast , Yesdared soul a hunter accustomed to dangers from childhood.
2) Released month at nightdark , lonely looks out of a black cloud at the fieldsdesert, to villagesdistant , to the villagesneighbors.
1) Inversion of the main members of the sentence, the predicate is brought to the fore.
Inversion of predicate and definitions.
The rearrangement of the parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade.
Parcelling
(the design of one statement in a number of isolated segments, highlighted in the letter by dots as independent sentences).
This is a means of visualization, a special stylistic device that allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings
Anna was in trouble. Big.
This year I was at sea ... First time in life.
Gradation
Translated from Latin "gradual increase, increase"
Gradation is a figure in the form of a syntactic structure, within which homogeneous means of expression (epithets, metaphors, comparisons, etc.) are arranged in order of strengthening or weakening of a feature.
1) Pure, immaculate, beautiful , like a bride stood before him the work of the artist.Modest, divine, innocent and simple , like a genius, it rose above everything.
2) This is not a horse top, not human rumor, not the trumpet of a trumpeter from the field is heard, but the weatherwhistling, humming, whistling, humming, poured .
(A.S. Pushkin)
1) Homogeneous epithets
pure, immaculate, beautiful
are arranged according to the degree of growth, enhance the impression of the picture.
2) Homogeneous impersonations are arranged in ascending order:whistling, buzzing, poured .
In both the first and second examples, the gradation gives the impression of an evolving action or sensation.
Default
(a turn of speech, consisting in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader to guess for himself what exactly remained unsaid.
Alien constellations rise above us,
Other people's banners are rustling above us…
What's this? Tears… or blood?
Man is the highest value on earth...
Antithesis
sharp opposition, contradiction of three objects that are being compared. Usually opposition is expressed using antonyms, well-known
and contextual. Opposition enhances the expressiveness of speech. Antithesis is an artistic device, opposition of words, images,
characters, elements, compositions, etc.
Where was the tablefood,
therecoffin costs.
(T. Derzhavin)
Rich and on weekdaysfeasting , apoor and on holidaygrieves .
(proverb)
1.Yourich , I ampoor ,
You -novelist , I am -poet
(A.S. Pushkin)
2.My faithfulfriend !
My enemy insidious!
MyTsar ! My slave !
Native language!
(V. Bryusov)
3. You andwretched.
You andabundant,
You andmighty.
You andpowerless! Mother Russia
(N. Nekrasov)
4. Mesad because fun you
Expressiveness is enhanced:
Sharp opposition of wordsfood - the coffin, the rich - the poor, feasting - grieving, weekdays - a holiday.
All oppositions in these examples are based on antonyms. These words are always antonyms.( rich - poor, friend - enemy, mighty - powerless - common language antonyms) or only in these texts( prose writer - poet, king - slave, wretched - abundant – contextual antonyms), but they all oppose each other and thereby strengthen the signs that they call.
Shade the attribute by which they are compared, compared.
The objects in question are contrasted.
Oxymoron
A figure in which usually incompatible concepts are combined, thus a new meaning is obtained, and speech acquires special expressiveness:
Lush naturewilting .
1 Mysteriousmakes noise forestsilence ,
Invisible through the woods
sings and wanders Autumn
(I.A.Bunin)
2.For the first time I have been warming myself for a month,
First time fromwarmed by the coolness .
(S. Yesenin)
3. Squalid luxury outfit
(N. Nekrasov)
A combination of incompatible concepts- silence makes noise - enhances the mysterious feeling that arises in an empty autumn forest, when each light rustle against the background of the silence of the forest acquires a special sound, fills with a mysterious meaning.
2. Combination fromwarmed by the coolness emphasizes the general emotional state of the poet, in which he feels warmth even from cold objects
Multi-Union
(polysindeon)
A stylistic figure, consisting in a numerical increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually for the connection of homogeneous members.
I AM or I will cryor I will scream or faint.
Thanks to the multi-union, the unity of enumeration is created, the expressiveness of speech is enhanced.
Asyndeton
( asyndeton)
Conscious refusal to combine the enumerated concepts with unions. In such cases, intonation becomes of great importance, an expressive pause is used to emphasize the words listed.
It's all over:cartridges, coal, bread.
The mad city has turned into a crypt.
Where the cannonade was echoing.
The clever combination of non-union and multi-union in one text creates a special stylistic effect.
Syntactic concurrency
Identical syntactic constructions (the same arrangement of similar members of a sentence) of neighboring sentences or segments of speech.
1.Young people are always dear to us.
Old people are honored everywhere.
2.Your mind is deep that the sea
Your spirit is high that mountains.
Negative concurrency
Parallelism based on negative comparisons.
Syntactic parallelism is characteristic of proverbs
It's not the wind that tends the branch,
It is not the oak tree that makes noise,
Then my heart groans
It trembles like an autumn leaf.
Anaphora
A stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements inthe beginning each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose)
1 . Gr Ozoy demolished bridges.
Gr both from a washed-out cemetery.
2. Black eyed girl,
black maned horse!
Z.Not intentionally the winds were blowing.
Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm.
4. Do I wander I am along the noisy streets.
I come in to a crowded temple.
I'm sitting between the mad young men,
I surrender to my dreams.
1.Anaphora of sounds
2. Anaphora morphemic.
3. Anaphora lexical.
4. Anaphora syntactic: repetition of the same syntactic constructions.
Epiphora
A stylistic figure, the opposite of anaphora, consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row (verse, stanza, sentences)
1. I would like to know why Ititular counselor? Why exactlytitular counselor ?
2. Dear friend, and in this quiet house
the fever hits me.
Can't find a place for me
vquiet house
Near a peaceful fire.
Lexical repetition
it is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of any member of a sentence (word), part of a sentence or a whole sentence, several sentences, a stanza in order to draw special attention to them
Lexical repetition:
1) anaphora
2) epiphora
3) pick up (Serpilinwas silent. Was silent and thought ...)
The sweetest and the hardestthink.
Think most ...
Nominative themes
a stylistic figure, which is a structure divided into two parts, in which the first part indicates the topic of the message, and the second - a statement about this topic.
Moscow! On the maps of the world there is no word like this for us, filled with such content.
Sea! When you say this word, it seems that you went out for a walk, looking at the horizon.
Draws the attention of the reader or listener to significant parts of the text, gives special expressiveness.
Ellipsis
Skipping an element of a statement that can be easily reconstructed in a given
1. Officer - with a pistol,
Terkin - with a soft bayonet.
2. There are flowers in your gardens,
There is sadness in mine.
The ellipsis, like the epiphora, enhance the expressiveness
The pictorial and expressive means of the language allow not only to convey information, but also to brightly, convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expressiveness make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when you need an emotional impact on listeners or readers. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, a company without using special language means.
The word is the basis of the pictorial expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of the appearance or behavior of a person - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) - the use of a word in different meanings.
Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry a different semantic load, serve to create a sound game in speech.
Types of homonyms:
Puns - used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning, they betray sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.
Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different meanings and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms, it is impossible to build a vivid and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.
Types of synonyms:
Antonyms - words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to one part of speech. Allows you to create vivid and expressive phrases.
Paths are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, vividly recreate the picture.
| Definition | |
| Allegory | Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables. |
| Hyperbola | Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to clearly describe the properties, events, signs. |
| Grotesque | The technique is used for a satirical description of the vices of society. |
| Irony | Trails that are designed to hide the true meaning of the expression through slight ridicule. |
| Litotes | The opposite of hyperbole is that the properties and qualities of the object are deliberately underestimated. |
| Impersonation | A technique in which the qualities of living beings are attributed to inanimate objects. |
| Oxymoron | The connection in one sentence of incompatible concepts (dead souls). |
| Periphrase | Description of the item. A person, events without an exact name. |
| Synecdoche | Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothing, appearance. |
| Comparison | The difference from a metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison, there are often unions - as if. |
| Epithet | The most frequent figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets. |
Metaphor - hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative sense. It always lacks the subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is being compared. There are short and detailed metaphors. The metaphor is aimed at external comparison of objects or phenomena.
Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects by internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from metaphor.
Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.
| Syntactic construction name | Description |
| Anaphora | Using the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a piece of text or a sentence. |
| Epiphora | Applying the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech give the text emotionality, allow you to clearly convey intonation. |
| Parallelism | Constructing neighboring sentences in the same form. Often used to amplify a rhetorical exclamation or question. |
| Ellipsis | Deliberate exclusion of the implied term of the sentence. Makes speech more vivid. |
| Gradation | Each subsequent word in the sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one. |
| Inversion | The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in forward order. Reception allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new sound. |
| Default | Deliberate understatement in the text. Designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader. |
| Rhetorical appeal | Emphasized appeal to a person or inanimate objects. |
| A rhetorical question | A question that does not imply an answer, its task is to attract the attention of the reader or listener. |
| Rhetorical exclamation | Special figures of speech for the transmission of expression, speech intensity. Make the text emotional. Grab the attention of the reader or listener. |
| Multi-Union | Multiple repetition of the same conjunctions to enhance the expressiveness of speech. |
| Asyndeton | Intentionally skipping alliances. This technique makes speech dynamic. |
| Antithesis | Sharp opposition of images, concepts. The technique is used to create contrast, it expresses the author's attitude to the event being described. |
Paths, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, phraseological statements make speech convincing and bright. Such expressions are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.
The syntactic system of the Russian language is surprisingly rich in pictorial possibilities. Free (relatively) word order gives the Russian syntax grammatical flexibility, generates a huge number of syntactic synonyms, with the help of which it is possible to convey the subtlest semantic nuances. For the language of fiction, it is essential that at the level of syntax, all linguistic figurative means that do not exist in isolation in the text, but function in a syntactic unit - a sentence, are combined and interact.
Usage one-piece sentences is one of the most expressive syntactic tools. With the help of nominative sentences naming objects, phenomena, the artist draws pictures of nature, the setting, describes the state of the hero and evaluates what is happening. Nominative sentences are widely used when writing in personal diaries, letters, that is, those genres that are characterized by the spontaneity of expressing thoughts, the speed of fixing the main details.
Twenty first. Night. Monday.
Outlines of the capital in the darkness.
Some bummer has invented
That there is love on earth. (A. A. Akhmatova).
Autumn. Fairy palace
All open for review.
Forest paths clearings,
Looking into the lakes.
As in the painting exhibition:
Halls, halls, halls, halls
Elm, ash, aspen
In unprecedented gilding.
Linden hoop gold,
Like a crown on a newlywed.
The face of a birch under the veil,
Wedding and transparent. (B. Pasternak).
Quite often, a number of one-piece sentences are the result of the creation of a parcel structure. Parcelling(parceller - French “to divide into small parts”) is a grammatical and stylistic device, consisting in dismembering a syntactically related text into intonationally isolated segments, separated by a dot.
"Corridor. Stairs. Corridor again. A door in the wall at the bend. “I can’t take it anymore,” the little man in a faded, dirty shirt mutters, but the only energy left is to drop one word for every stumbling step. Not. I can. More. I do not. I can. I ... "(G. L. Oldie." Waiting at the Crossroads ").
Imitation of the ease of colloquial speech, its inherent syntactic and rhythmic organization.
Period(periodos - Greek “circle, ring, detour”) is a polynomial complex sentence, harmonious in its syntactic structure, distinguished by the completeness and completeness of the content. Consists of two parts: rise and fall, separated by the top of the period, accompanied by a pause and a sharp decline in tone (reflected in writing by punctuation marks “…, -…”), for example:
“Not only have I been condemned to such a terrible fate; not only that before the end I must see how father and mother will die in inexpressible torment, for whose salvation she would have been ready to give her life twenty times, - not enough of all this: it is necessary that before my end I should have the opportunity to see and hear words and love which I have not seen "(N. V. Gogol).
Parallelism Is a repetition of syntactic structures of the same type. For example, “Youth is when you dance as if no one sees you .. When you live as if you will never die. When you trust, as if you have never been betrayed ... And when you love, as if you have never been hurt. " (A. Parfenova).
In a broader sense, parallelism is the connection between individual images, motives, etc. in a work of fiction, consisting in the same arrangement of similar members of a sentence in two or more adjacent sentences:
Silk thread clings to the wall,
Dounia beats mother with her brow.
The whole poem can be built on the repetition of the intonation-syntactic pattern (melodic repetition), which gives a special musicality to the poetic text:
It's night in my huge city.
From the sleepy house I go - away
And people think: wife, daughter, -
And I remember one thing: night.
The July wind sweeps me - the way
And somewhere there is music in the window - a little.
Ah, now the wind will blow until dawn
Through the walls of the thin breasts - into the chest.
There is a black poplar, and there is a light in the window,
And the ringing on the tower, and in the hand - the color,
And this step - follow no one,
And this shadow, but not me.
The lights are like strands of gold beads
Night leaf in the mouth - taste.
Free you from the bonds of the day
Friends, understand that I am dreaming for you. (M. Tsvetaeva. "Insomnia").
Gradation(lat gradatio "gradual increase") - the arrangement of a number of words (usually synonyms, linguistic or contextual) according to the degree of increase (ascending) or weakening (descending) of their semantic and emotional meaning. “There was something imperceptibly oriental in his face, but the gray denseness glowed, burned, shone huge blue eyes” (V. Soloukhin).
Antithesis(Greek antithesis “opposition”) is a figure of contrast, opposition of concepts in artistic speech. The means of structural opposition can be both opposing conjunctions (a, but), and intonation, or just intonation.
I will laugh with everyone
I don’t want to cry with anyone. (M. Yu. Lermontov). - In this case, we have a simple antithesis - the use of a pair of antonyms. Both linguistic and contextual antonyms are used, for example, in the well-known characteristic of Onegin and Lensky:
“They got together. Wave and stone. / Poems and prose, ice and fire / Not so different among themselves ”(A. Pushkin) - contextual antonyms.
The antithesis can be complex, detailed, for example, M. Gorky's story "The Old Woman Izergil" has a three-part composition: two legends connected by the old woman Izergil's story about her fate are opposite in meaning and reflect the antithesis of the artistic images of Larra and Danko.
A more complex phenomenon of a literary text is the fixation by the author of opposite feelings, which can be interconnected and mutually reversible. So, one of the features of the creative manner of I. A. Bunin is the desire to convey the conflicting feelings simultaneously living in the human soul, inexplicable in rational terms - in the story "Pass" we read: "Sweet is hopelessness"; “Despair begins to strengthen me”; "A spiteful reproach to someone for everything that I stand makes me happy"; in the story "Cicada": "How endlessly I am unhappy, languishing with my happiness, which always lacks something", the same in his poems: "Is there really happiness even in loss?" ("The grave grass grows, grows ...").
Associated with this artistic phenomenon is the use of oxymorons.
Oxymoron(Greek oxymoron “witty-stupid”) - an unusual combination of words that are logically mutually exclusive. The oxymoron emphasizes the inner conflict, a contradictory psychological state: “she sobbed with delight”, “the horror of delight”, “painfully happy rapture” (I. A. Bunin). Oxymorons are often found in the texts of Ivan Turgenev's works, but he builds them on a rather familiar contrast: "chilling politeness", "proud modesty". Linguistic contrast can become not only a purely linguistic device, but also a leading compositional means, which is reflected in the title of the work (for example, "The Living Corpse" by L. N. Tolstoy).
Inversion(lat. inversio "inversion, permutation") - the arrangement of words in a different order than it is established by the rules of grammar:
Listen: far, far, on Lake Chad
An exquisite giraffe wanders. (N. Gumilev)
Inversion acquires special significance in poetic speech: here it is not just a stylistic figure, but also a sign of the poetic organization of speech (rhythm-forming function). In addition, unexpected word order can distribute differently semantic accents of a sentence.
Periphrase (a)- a descriptive turn, for example: Dull time! Charm of the eyes! - instead of autumn (A.S. Pushkin). Being one of the traditional means of expressiveness in literature of different styles and directions, periphrasis allows you to create a special emotional tone, for example, the classicists use it to give a solemn sound to odes: the luminary of the day, the gift of the gods, the favorite of the muses; sentimentalists - to add grace to the syllable, in addition, in the literature of sentimentalism, the periphery acquires new functions: it becomes one of the important means of revealing the subjective principle, conveying the author's attitude to the object of the nomination, and sentimentalists designate, as a rule, objects that are assessed positively in a peripheral way: “Goddesses are meek , beloved of heaven, Friends of gentle muses and all the imperishable beauties! " - graces are described (M.N. Karamzin).
A rhetorical question- a special type of interrogative sentence that does not require an answer, creates internal tension, enhances the emotionality of artistic speech, allows you to logically highlight the most semantic segments of the text:
Snowy plain, white moon.
Our side is covered with a shroud.
And birches in white are crying through the forests.
Who died here? Died? Am I not myself? (S. Yesenin).
Rhetorical appeal, rhetorical exclamation: The utterance can be addressed to an animated and inanimate object, an abstract concept. Rhetorical addresses and exclamations highlight phenomena and objects that are important in the author's value system, and draw the reader's attention to them:
Moscow! What a huge
Hospice!
Everyone in Russia is homeless.
We will all come to you.
Insomnia pushed me on my way.
Oh, how beautiful you are, my dull Kremlin! -
I kiss on the chest tonight -
The whole round warring land! (M. Tsvetaeva).
Ellipsis(Greek elleipsis “loss, omission”) - the omission of one or more members of the sentence without prejudice to the meaning of the statement, which is easily implied by the context or situation.
We are rich, barely from the cradle, ( came out)
By the mistakes of the fathers and their late wits .. (M. Yu. Lermontov).
Elliptical statements are used to convey emotional coloring, dynamism, weight to the text and contribute to its functional and stylistic reorientation in relation to stylistically neutral use. Ellipsis is widely used in both prose and poetry, giving the text an ease, colloquial tone.
Asyndeton- deliberate skipping of connecting unions, creates the impression of impetuosity, rapid change of pictures.
Here he is with extraordinary secrecy
Bend left the streets
Rising stone cubes
Lumps lying on top of each other,
Posters, niches, roofs, pipes,
Hotels, theaters, clubs,
Boulevards, squares, heaps of lime trees,
Courtyards, gates, rooms,
Entrances, stairs, apartments,
Where all passions play
In the name of remaking the world ... (B. Pasternak. "Trip").
Multi-Union(polysindeton) - the deliberate use of repeated conjunctions.
The repetition of the union "and" is expressive. His anaphora was quite common in Christian church literature - in the Gospel, with the help of this repetition, the solemnity and majesty of the narrative was achieved: “... And getting up, He rebuked the wind and said to the sea: shut up, stop. And the wind died down, and there was a great silence. And he said to them: Why are you so fearful? how do you have no faith? And they were afraid of great fear and said among themselves: Who is this, that both the wind and the sea obey Him? " (The Gospel of Mark).
Multi-Union is a fairly common stylistic device that was used in Russian literature from different periods. "The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere into infinity." (V.G. Korolenko). Multi-union slows down the movement, emphasizes the meaning of homogeneous members of the proposal united by unions.
Questions and tasks
You have probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Expressive means make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without the use of special lexical figures, because speech will sound poor and ugly.
Let's figure out what means of expressiveness of the Russian language are and where to find them.
Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t go”, the words were selected with a scratch, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a intelligible thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are laid in the head with the reading of books. However, they alone are not enough to write interesting, colorful and easy. You need to develop your skill in practice.
Just compare the next two columns. On the left - text without expressive means or with their minimum amount. On the right is a text full of expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.
It would seem that there are three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! The expressive means of language help the viewer to see the picture you are trying to describe. Using them is a whole art, but it is not difficult to master it. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.
For example, in the paragraph of the text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the object instantly appears bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat cat-commander? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. Yes, and there will not be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly turn white, but the reader has long imagined him gray!
So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, substantiate, draw information and use the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for writing, but also for speaking. Especially if the speech or text is compiled in. However, both there and there the means of expressiveness in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of wading through such a "jungle".
There are a lot of such special techniques, and you hardly know everything about them. To begin with, you don't need to use all means of expression right away - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but do not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.
Traditionally, they are divided into several groups:
Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print and hang on the wall to re-read from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.
Among phonetic devices, two are most often encountered - alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case consonants are repeated, in the second - vowels.
This technique is very convenient to use in poems when words are few and you need to convey the atmosphere. And poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to "see" the picture.
Suppose we want to describe a swamp. There are reeds that rustle in the swamp. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but this is not enough for a complete picture.
Do you hear the reeds rustling and hissing silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonants are repeated.
Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. In this way, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. The table will help in explaining what assonance is.
Lexical techniques are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that often people use them unconsciously. For example, we might say that our heart is lonely. But the heart actually cannot be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help to emphasize the deep meaning of what was said.
The main lexical techniques include the following paths:
Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison slips into everyone's speech - this means of expressiveness has become firmly established in everyday life, so you need to use it wisely.
The metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes using the word "as if." We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression "dry clouds". Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. The epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text, it is important not to confuse them.
Hyperbole and litota are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred bonfires” is a clear hyperbole. And "quietly, quieter than a brook" - litota. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.
Metonymy and paraphrase are interesting phenomena. Metonymy is an abbreviation for what is said. For example, there is no need to speak of Chekhov's books as "books written by Chekhov." You can use the expression "Chekhov's books", and this will be a metonymy.
And paraphrase is a deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.
Although, with the proper skill, tautology can also be a means of expressiveness!
Also, lexical means of expressiveness in speech include:
| Expression tool | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Epithet | A definition that helps add color to an image. Often used figuratively. | Bloody sky. (It is said about the sunrise). |
| Comparison as a means of expressiveness of speech | Matching objects to each other. They may not be related, but even vice versa. | Expressive means, like expensive jewelry, exalt our speech. |
| Metaphor | "Hidden comparison" or figurative. More complex than simple comparison, comparative conjunctions are not used. | Boiling anger. (The man is angry.) Sleepy city. (Morning city that has not yet woken up). |
| Metonymy | Replacing words in order to shorten a clear sentence or avoid tautology. | I read Chekhov's books (not “I read books by Chekhov's authorship”). |
| Irony | An expression with the opposite meaning. Hidden mockery. | You are a genius, of course! (Ironically, "genius" is used to mean "stupid"). |
| Hyperbola | Deliberate exaggeration of what was said. | Brighter than a thousand fiery lightning. (Dazzling, bright show). |
| Litotes | Deliberate reduction of what was said. | Weak as a mosquito. |
| Periphrase | Replacement of words in order to avoid tautology. Replacement can only be a related word. | The house is a hut on chicken legs, the lion is the king of beasts, etc. |
| Allegory | An abstract concept that helps to reveal the image. Most often it is a well-established designation. | Fox in the meaning of cunning, wolf in the meaning of strength and rudeness, turtle in the meaning of slowness or wisdom. |
| Impersonation | Transferring the properties and feelings of a living object to an inanimate one. | The lantern seemed to swing on a long, thin leg - it reminded me of a boxer preparing for a swift attack. |
Stylistic figures often contain specific grammatical constructions. The most commonly used are:
Anaphora and epiphora are often referred to as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora - the same beginning of several lines, epiphora - the same endings. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize the drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.
The compositional joint is a deliberate "escalation" of the conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The word helped me become who I am. Such a technique is called a compositional joint.
Antithesis is the opposition of two concepts-antipodes: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Of the interesting techniques, one can note parceling, which is used to build up conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - skipping a sentence member. It is often used in exclamations, calls.
| Expression tool | Definition | Example and explanation |
|---|---|---|
| Anaphora | Same beginning of multiple lines. | Let's join hands, brothers. Let's join hands and unite our hearts. Let's take up the swords to end the war. |
| Epiphora | The same endings for multiple lines. | I erase it wrong! Ironing not so! All wrong! |
| Composite joint | One sentence ends with this word, and the second sentence begins with it. | I didn't know what to do. To do in order to survive this storm. |
| Antithesis | Contrast | I came to life every second, but after that I died every evening. (Used to demonstrate drama). |
| Oxymoron | Using concepts that contradict each other. | Hot ice, peace war. |
| Paradox | An expression that has no direct meaning, but carries an aesthetic meaning. | The dead man's hot hands were livelier than all others. Hurry up as slowly as possible. |
| Inversion | Deliberate rearrangement of words in a sentence. | I was sad that night, I was afraid of everything in the world. |
| Parcelling | Breakdown of words into separate sentences. | He waited. Again. Stooping, crying. |
| Ellipsis | Deliberate omission of a word. | Go ahead, get down to business! (the word "let's take it" is missing). |
| Gradation | Increasing expression, the use of synonyms by the degree of increase. | His eyes, cold, unfeeling, dead, expressed nothing. (Used to demonstrate drama). |
It should not be forgotten that gestures are also used in oral Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than the usual means of expression, but in a skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and vibrant.
Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many jewelry, which makes you uninteresting. Means of expressiveness are like a skillfully chosen accessory. It happens that you don't even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.
The culture of the orator's oral speech is not only the correctness of speech in terms of compliance with phonetic, lexical, grammatical norms, but also expressiveness, emotionality, relevance (situational expediency). Special artistic techniques, visual and expressive means of language: paths, figures, phraseological units, aphorisms help to make speech figurative, emotional to the speaker. Proverbs and sayings.
Trope(tropos- turn, turn of speech) - the concept of poetics and stylistics, denoting such turns that are based on the use of a word (or a combination of words) in a figurative meaning and are used to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech. The most commonly used trails are traditionally metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, epithet, comparison, irony, personification, hyperbole and lithote, periphrase :
- metaphor - transfer of a feature from one subject to another based on hidden comparison (similarity): nerves of steel, field of activity, warm relations, golden hands;
- metonymy - a kind of metaphor, transfer of the name by contiguity: three plates ate, pierced iron, read Virgil;
- synecdoche - transfer of the name from general to particular or from particular to general: We all look at Napoleons. Most of all, take care of a penny;
- epithet - figurative definition of an object or action: tireless thirst for knowledge, great interest in science, phenomenal memory;
- comparison - the path, consisting in the selection of the subject of comparison, which allows you to give a more striking characteristic: Birches stand like big candles. A clear sky, like clear water, attracts;
- irony - the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense of the literal one for the purpose of ridicule: Cleavage, clever, are you delirious, head? (call to donkey);
- impersonation - the transfer of human properties to inanimate objects and abstract concepts: The golden grove spoke. Pensive forests. A star with a star speaks;
- hyperbole - excessive exaggeration of the properties, dimensions, strength, significance of any phenomenon: In a hundred thousand suns, the sunset blazed. I told you a thousand times;
- litota - excessive underestimation of the properties, dimensions, strength, significance of any phenomenon: Tom Thumb;
- paraphrase - an expression, a descriptive, common transmission of an expression or word: king of beasts (lion), the sun of Russian poetry (A.S. Pushkin);
Figure of speech(lat. figura- outlines, appearance, image) - linguistic means specially organized to give speech imagery and expressiveness.
Anaphora - a figure of speech, I'll finish h It is based on the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose).
Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, / Coffins from a washed-out cemetery. (A.S. Pushkin).
Black-eyed maiden, / Black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov).
It was not in vain that the winds blew / It was not in vain that there was a thunderstorm. (S. Yesenin).
Do I wander along noisy streets, / Enter a crowded temple, / Sit between mad young men, I surrender to my dreams.
A.S. Pushkin
Anadiplosis - a figure of speech, constructed in such a way that a word or a group of words enclosing a segment of text (sentence, line of poetry) is repeated at the beginning of the next segment:
It will come as big as a sip, / A sip of water during the heat of summer ... R. Rozhdestvensky
You will go through the meadow, like a garden, / A garden - into a wild bloom, / You cannot keep your gaze, So as not to fall to the carnations.
S. Yesenin
Antistrophe (simple chiasm) - a figure of speech formed by "crossing", changing the positions of repeating components of two adjacent text segments: the mouse is afraid of the bear - the bear is afraid of the mouse.
Antimetabol - the figure of speech, based on the opposition of words, conveying the serious content of speech: well-fed is not a friend to the hungry(proverb); where power is right, right is powerless(proverb).
Antithesis - a figure of speech, which serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply opposing concepts, thoughts, images:
Where the table was of food, there is a coffin (Derzhavin).
The rich feast on weekdays, and the poor grieve even on holiday(proverb).
Aposiopesis - the figure of speech, based on the stop of speech, designed to depict a sudden influx of feelings: Then I began to flip through the book condescendingly, absentmindedly casting a bored look at it, like a fishing rod in the river. And so it froze, my friends ... My friends, what a catch! .. I pulled such carps! Unknown fish, gold, silver, rainbow ... and they lived, danced ... And I thought they were dead! (R. Roland).
Asyndeton - the same as non-union: The power of the conspiracy word is limitless: it can control the elements, cause thunder, storm, rains, hail and delay them, create crops and sterility, multiply wealth, reproduce flocks and exterminate them with a plague infection, give a person happiness, health, success in trades and expose him disasters, drive away illnesses from a sick person and send them to a healthy person, kindle love in the heart of a girl and a young man, or cool the ardor of mutual passion, (...), in short: this word can work miracles, subordinating to the will of the spellcaster the beneficial and harmful influences of the entire deified nature ... A.N. Afanasyev. From the book "The Tree of Life" .
Gemination - the figure of the addition, depicting the plurality, variety of objects and phenomena, duration, etc. by repetition: I ran, ran, ran along the forest ... I got tired and fell.
Gradation - a stylistic figure, consisting in such an arrangement of parts of an utterance (words, segments of a sentence), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase (less often weakening) of the impression they make is created: I came, I saw, I conquered(Caesar). The rivers, lakes, seas, oceans of tears! (Ven.)
Zeugma - a figure of speech that conveys the concentration of thought on key points or a unidirectional concentration of efforts: you - me, I - you.
Inversion (reverse word order) - a change in the usual arrangement of words in a sentence, as a result of which the rearranged element stands out both in semantic and stylistic terms: He's a smart man. She will come in the evening.
Pun - a figure of speech, consisting in the humorous use of polysemy or sound similarity of various words: It was raining and two students. The defender of liberty and rights in this case is not at all right(A.S. Pushkin).
Correction - a stylistic figure based on a sharp opposition of concepts, thoughts, images (stronger than an antithesis): Everyone condemned him! People, god! And he walks among us! Hello!
Oxymoron - a figure of speech based on the connection in one phrase or in the immediate vicinity of logically incompatible, contradictory concepts: living corpse, favorite enemy.
Parallelism - a rhetorical figure, which is an arrangement of elements of speech that are identical or similar in grammatical and semantic structure in adjacent parts of the text ( Your mind is as deep as the sea, your spirit is as high as the mountains. Will I see your bright gaze? Will I hear a gentle conversation?).
Parenteza - a rhetorical figure conveying a sharp change in the emotional mood, marked by an intercalary construction: For self-financing, as we warned a hundred times, but who is listening to us (there is no publicity, but with audibility until the seams),– self-financing is unthinkable to conduct in isolation, outside the full package of economic reforms(from the railway station Novy Mir).
Parcelling - such a division of the sentence, in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonational-semantic speech units, following one after the other: Elena is in trouble here. Big(Panferov).
Period - an expanded syntactic whole, in which the constituent elements are in harmonious correspondence with each other (depicting the confident emotional mood of the convincing person, uniform, growing in his conviction, but in it the connection between the argument and the communicative attitude is conveyed brighter than in the anaphora): Having achieved the goal, having arisen from the insignificance of the slave to the height of the autocrat, by tireless efforts, vigilant cunning, cunning, intrigues, villainy, did Godunov fully enjoy his greatness, which his soul craved,–greatness bought at such a high price? (Karamzin).
Polysindeon - the same as multi-union, multi-sentence: A conspiracy word can both cause thunder, and delay them, and create crops and barrenness, and multiply wealth, and produce flocks and destroy them…
A rhetorical question - trope based on the contrast between interrogative and affirmative modality, on the one hand, and negative, on the other: Is it because we should love good because we are praised or rewarded for it?
Rhetorical exclamation - a trope based on the predominance of emotional over informational content: What an amazing mixture of different feelings!
Ellipsis - a figure of speech, consisting in the deliberate omission of an element of the utterance, which gives the latter dynamism, tension, increased energy. Ellipsis is widely used in fiction and poetry, in journalism, in stage and oratory. The most common ellipsis of syntactic constructions, most often the verb predicate is omitted: The hares decided to bake the rabbit, and the rabbit from the oven jumped onto the oven. Then to the bench and through the window from the bench(Kozlovsky).
Epanode - a figure based on repetition, numbering, separately or together: Three, seven, ace did not leave his (Herman's) head and moved on his lips ... Three, seven, ace pursued him in his sleep, assuming all kinds of forms: the three bloomed in front of him in the form of a magnificent grandifler, the seven seemed like Gothic questions, the ace - huge spider.
Epiphora - consists of repetition of the final parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech: We will not be! And the world at least that. The trace will disappear! And the world at least what(Khayyam).
Expressive means of speech are also phraseological units, aphorisms, winged words, proverbs, sayings: Achilles' heel, grandmother said in two, a white crow, take it out into the clear water, keep your nose in the wind, the cute ones scold - they just amuse themselves.
Questions for control
What means of speech expression contribute to the success of communication?
What means of speech expression do you know?
Name the types of trails known to you. Give examples.
What are the types of speech figures you know? Give examples.
